Introduction to

Databases
 Objectives
 The objective of this session is to make participants
understand the Database Concepts and enable to design the
Database Schema

2
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contents
 Database Fundamentals
 Database Views and Users
 Data Models
 Normalization

3
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Introduction to Database
 DB - A set of inter-related data
 MS - A software that manages the data
 SCHEMA - A set of tables and relationships, which meet a specific
need
ENDUSER TOOLS

DBMS

DATA
END END
USER USER

APPLICATIONS

4
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Database Administrator
 Is a database architect who is responsible for design and
implementation of new databases.
 Manages the database centrally
 Decides on the type of data, internal structures and their
relationships
 Ensures the security of the database
 Controls access to the data through the user codes and passwords
 Can restrict the views or operations that the users can perform on
the database.

5
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Characteristics of DBMS

 Control of Data Redundancy

 Same data is stored at number of places

 DBMS helps in removing redundancies by providing means of integration.

 Sharing of Data

 DBMS allow many applications to share the data.

 Maintenance of Integrity

 Refers to the correctness, consistency and interrelationship of data with respect

to the application, which uses the data.

6
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Characteristics of DBMS
 Support for Transaction Control and Recovery

 DBMS ensures that updates take place physically after a logical transaction is
complete.

 Data Independence

 In DBMS, the application programs are transparent to the physical organization

and access techniques.

 Availability of Productivity Tools

 Tools like query language, screen and report painter and other 4GL tools are
available.

7
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Characteristics of DBMS
 Control over Security

 DBMS provide tools by which the DBA can ensure security of the database.

 Hardware Independence

 Most DBMS are available across hardware platforms and operating systems.

8
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Levels of Abstraction
 Conceptual Level :-the overall integrated structural organization of
the database

 Physical Level :- the information about how the database is actually

stored in the disk.

 View / External Level :- the user view of the database. Different for
different user based on application requirement.

9
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 The Data Model
 Data model defines the range of data structures supported and the
availability of data handling languages

 It is a collection of conceptual tools to describe:

 Data
 Data relationships
 Constraints

 There are different data models:

 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Relational Model

10
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contd…
 What is A Data Model

A data model is a conceptual representation of the data structures that

are required by a database. The data structures include the data
objects, the associations between data objects, and the rules which
govern operations on the objects. As the name implies, the data model
focuses on what data is required and how it should be organized rather
than what operations will be performed on the data.

To use a common analogy, the data model is equivalent to an architect's

building plans.
A data model is independent of hardware or software constraints.
Rather than try to represent the data as a database would see it, the
data model focuses on representing the data as the user sees it in the
"real world". It serves as a bridge between the concepts that make up
real-world events and processes and the physical representation of
those concepts in a database.

11
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contd…
To use a common analogy, the data model is equivalent to an
architect's building plans.
A data model is independent of hardware or software constraints.
Rather than try to represent the data as a database would see it, the
data model focuses on representing the data as the user sees it in
the "real world". It serves as a bridge between the concepts that
make up real-world events and processes and the physical
representation of those concepts in a database.

12
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contd…
 Why is Data Modeling Important?
The goal of the data model is to make sure that the all data objects
required by the database are completely and accurately represented.
Because the data model uses easily understood notations and
natural language , it can be reviewed and verified as correct by the
end-users.

13
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contd…
 The data model is also detailed enough to be used by the database
developers to use as a "blueprint" for building the physical
database. The information contained in the data model will be used
to define the relational tables, primary and foreign keys, stored
procedures, and triggers. A poorly designed database will require
more time in the long-term. Without careful planning you may create
a database that omits data required to create critical reports,
produces results that are incorrect or inconsistent, and is unable to
accommodate changes in the user's requirements.

14
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Hierarchical Structure
 In this model data is represented by simple tree structure
 Relationships between entities are represented as parent-child.
 Many-to-many relationships are not allowed.
 Parents and children are tied together by links called "pointers"

Root

Level 1 Level 1
Child Child

Level 2 Level 2 Level 2 Level 2

Child Child Child Child

15
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 The Hierarchical Model

 Consider a student course - marks database

 In the hierarchical model a student can register for many courses
and gets marks for each course.
•A parent can have many children
•A child cannot have more than one parent
Scode Sname •No child can exist without its parent
S1 A
Scode Sname
Ccode Cname Marks S2 B
C1 Physics 65
Ccode Cname Marks
C2 Chemistr 78
y C3 Maths 83
C3 Maths 83
C4 Biology 85 C4 Biology 85

16
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Possibilities in Hierarchical Model
 INSERT

 Insertion of Dummy student required to introduce a new course.

 DELETE

 Deleting a student- the only one to take the course deletes course information.

 UPDATE

 To change the course name of one course, the whole database has to be
searched, this may result in data inconsistency.

17
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 The Network Model
 Network model solves the problem of data redundancy by
representing relationships in terms of sets rather than hierarchy

 A record occurrence may have any number of immediate superiors

 Network model supports many-to-many relationships

18
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 The Network Model

 The student and course records are linked together through a marks
record
 No restrictions on number of parents
 Record type can have number of parent and child record types
 It is more complex than the hierarchical model because of links
 Is a superset of the hierarchical model

19
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Possibilities in Network Model
 INSERT

 Inserting a course record or student record poses no problems as they can exist
without any connectors till a student takes the course.

 DELETE

 Deleting any record automatically adjusts the chain

 UPDATE

 Update can be done only to a particular child record

20
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 The Relational Model

 The Relational Model developed out of the work done by Dr. E. F.

Codd at IBM in the late 1960s who was looking for ways to solve the
problems with the existing models.

 At the core of the relational model is the concept of a table (also

called a relation) in which all data is stored.

 Each table is made up of records (horizontal rows also known as

tuples) and fields (vertical columns also known as attributes).

 Examples of RDBMS are Oracle, Informix, and Sybase.

21
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 The Relational Model
 Because of lack of linkages relational model is easier to understand
and implement.

22
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Possibilities in Relational Model

 INSERT

 Inserting a course record or student record poses no problems because tables

are separate

 DELETE

 Deleting any record affects only a particular table

 UPDATE

 Update can be done only to a particular table

23
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Relational DBMS
Examples of Relational Tables
DEPT table
Deptno Dname Loc
10 Accounting New York
20 Research Dallas
30 Sales Chicago  'row' or 'tuple'
40 Operations Boston

'column' or 'attribute'

EMPLOYEE table
Empno Empname Job Mgr Deptno
7369 Smith Clerk 7902 20
7499 Allen Salesman 7839 30
7566 Jones Manager 7839 20
7839 King President 10
7902 Ford Analyst 7566 20

24
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Properties of Relational Data Structures
 Tables must satisfy the following properties to be classified as
relational.

 Entries of attributes are single valued

 Entries of attribute are of the same kind.

 No two rows are identical

 The order of attributes is unimportant

 The order of rows is unimportant

 Every column can be uniquely identified.

25
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Data Integrity
 Data integrity is the assurance that data is consistent, correct, and accessible

 Entity Integrity:

 Entity integrity ensures that no records are duplicated and that no attributes that make up the

primary key are NULL

 It is one of the properties necessary to ensure the consistency of the database.

 Foreign Key and Referential Integrity

 The referential integrity rule : If a foreign key in table A refers to the primary key in table B, then

every value of the foreign key in table A must be null or must be available in table B

26
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Data Integrity (Cont…)
 Unique Constraint:

 A unique constraint is a single field or combination of fields that uniquely

defines a tuple/row

 Unique constraints ensure that every value in the specified key is unique

 A table can have any number of unique constraints, with at most one unique
constraint defined as a primary key

 A unique constraint can contain NULL value.

27
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Data Integrity (Cont…)
DEPT table

Deptno Dname Loc

10 Accounting New York

20 Research Dallas

 EMPLOYEE table

Empno Empname Job Mgr Deptno

7369 Smith Clerk 7902 20

7499 Allen Salesman 7839 30

Column Constraints : Specify restrictions on the values a column can take

28
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
Normalization
 Normalization

 is a technique for designing relational database tables

 minimize duplication of information

 safeguard the database against certain types of problems

30
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contd…
 Process of efficiently organizing data in a database

 Goals of the normalization process:

 eliminate redundant data
 ensure data dependencies make sense

 reduces the amount of space a database consumed

 ensures that data is logically stored.

31
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
Problems with Unnormalized Database

 can suffer from logical inconsistencies of various types and from

anomalies involving data operations.

 UPDATE ANOMALY

 INSERTION ANOMALY

 DELETION ANOMALY

32
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
Example: UPDATE ANOMALY

An update anomaly. Employee 519 is shown as

having different addresses on different records

33
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
Example: INSERTION ANOMALY

An insertion anomaly. Until the new faculty member is assigned

to teach at least one course, his details cannot be recorded.

34
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
Example: DELETION ANOMALY

A deletion anomaly. All information about Dr. Giddens is lost when

he temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses

35
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Background to normalization:
 Functional dependency

 Trivial functional dependency

 Transitive dependency

 Multivalued dependency

 Join dependency

 Super key

 Candidate key

 Non-prime attribute

 Primary key

36
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Purpose of the Normalization
1. no duplication of data

2. no unnecessary data stored within a Database.

3. All the attributes (columns) of a table are completely dependent on

the primary key of a table only and not on any other attribute.

37
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Properties of Normalization:
Two important properties of Normalization:

 a. Lossless Join Property

 b. Dependency Preservation Property

38
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Normal forms (abbrev. NF)

 provides criteria for determining a table's degree of vulnerability to

logical inconsistencies and anomalies.

 The higher the NF applicable to a table, the less vulnerable it is to

inconsistencies and anomalies

39
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Normal Forms – Anomalies and Data Redundancies

 A number of NF have been defined for classifying relations.

 has associated with the relation.

 Are used to ensure the various types of anomalies and

inconsistencies

40
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
Relationship between Normal Forms

41
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Unnormalized Relation
 A table that contains one or more repeating groups.

 To create an unnormalized table transform the data from the

information source (e.g. form) into table format with columns and
rows.

42
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Unnormalized relation contains non atomic values

 Below unnormalized table shows the preferences that student

registers for various classes

 Each row may contain non-atomic values

43
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 First Normal Form (1NF)

 Eliminate Repeating Groups - Make a separate table for each set of

related attributes, and give each table a primary key.

 1NF requires that the values in each column of a table are atomic.
By atomic we mean that there are no sets of values within a column.

44
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contd…
 A table is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if it faithfully
represents a relation.

 a table with a unique key and without any nullable columns is in 1NF

45
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Example of First Normal form
unnormalized data is normalized to 1NF

46
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Second Normal Form (2NF)

 Is based on the concept of Full Functional Dependency.

 A relation R is in 2NF if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-key

attribute is fully functionally dependent on the primary key of the
relation R.

47
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Rules for 2NF
 A table in 1NF is also in 2NF form if the values in every column are
functionally or transitively dependent on the complete primary key

 For every relation with a single data item making up the primary key,
this rule should always be true. For those with the composite key
examine every column and ask whether its value depends on the
whole of the composite key or just some part of it

 Remove those that depend only on part of the key to a new relation
with that part as the primary key

48
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Example of 2NF form
 The below two tables demonstrate 2NF.
 Note the multiple Class# values for each Student# value in the above
table. Class# is not functionally dependent on Student# (primary
key), so this relationship is not in 2NF.

49
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Third Normal form
 Eliminate Columns Not Dependent On Key - If attributes do not
contribute to a description of the key, remove them to a separate
table

 3nF is based on the concept of transitive dependency.

 A relation R is in 3NF if and only if it is in 2NF and every non-key

attribute is nontransitively dependent on the primary key of the
relation R.

53
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 The criteria for third normal form (3NF)
Rules :
A relation in the second normal form is also in the third normal form,
if the values in every non - key column are not transitively
dependent on the primary key
Examine every non - key column and question its relationship with
every other non - key column
If there is a transitive dependency remove both the columns to a
new relation

54
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Example of Third Normal form
 In the last example, Adv-Room (the advisor's office number) is
functionally dependent on the Advisor attribute.
 move that attribute from the Students table to the Faculty table, as
shown below:

55
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Contd…
 this relation has redundancies wherein If the name of the employee
is changed, the change will have to be made in every tuple of the
relation, otherwise inconsistencies will creep up.
 The table will further have to be decomposed to eliminate
dependencies between the candidate key columns as shown,

59
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 BENEFITS OF NORMALIZATION

 Greater overall database organization

 Reduction of redundant data
 Data consistency within the database
 A much more flexible database design
 A better handle on database security

60
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 DRAWBACKS OF NORMALIZATION

 Reduced database performance

o The acceptance of reduced performance requires the knowledge that when a
query or transaction request is sent to the database

o requires much more CPU, memory, and I/O to process transactions and
database queries

61
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
 Summary
 RDBMS are primary used for storing transactional data.
 E-R Model is prepared to map the business system to
database.
 Normalization is the process of refining the table schema.

62
© 2017, Syntel, Inc.
Thank You!