Analog and Digital

Transmission
 Encoding Techniques
• Digital data, digital signal
• Analog data, digital signal
• Digital data, analog signal
• Analog data, analog signal
 Digital Data, Digital Signal
• Digital signal
– Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
– Each pulse is a signal element
– Binary data encoded into signal elements
Relationship between data rate
and signal rate
• The data rate defines the number of bits sent per sec
- bps. It is often referred to the bit rate.

• The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent

in a second and is measured in bauds. It is also
referred to as the modulation rate.

• Goal is to increase the data rate whilst reducing

the baud rate.
4.4
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data element

4.5
 Data rate and Baud rate
• The baud or signal rate can be
expressed as:
S = c x N x 1/r bauds
where N is data rate
c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.)
r is the ratio between data element &
signal element

4.6
Line coding and decoding

Line coding is the process of converting binary data, a sequence of bits, to a digital signal

4.7
Figure 4.1 Line coding
Figure 4.2 Signal level versus data level
 Line encoding
• DC components - when the voltage level remains
constant for long periods of time, there is an increase
in the low frequencies of the signal. Most channels
are bandpass and may not support the low
frequencies.

• This will require the removal of the dc component of

a transmitted signal.
4.10
Figure 4.3 DC component
 Line encoding
• Self synchronization - the clocks at the sender and
the receiver must have the same bit interval.

• If the receiver clock is faster or slower it will

misinterpret the incoming bit stream.

4.12
Figure 4.4 Lack of synchronization
Figure 4.5 Line coding schemes
 Unipolar encoding
• Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level
• Polarity is assigned to one of the two binary states, usually
the 1.
• The other state, usually the 0, is represented by zero
voltage.
• Has dc component.
• Lack of synchronization is an issue in unipolar encoding.
 Types of polar encoding

• Polar encoding uses two voltage levels (positive and

negative).
 NRZ-L and NRZ-I encoding

• In NRZ-L
– The level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the bit
– Positive voltage usually means the bit is 0
– Negative voltage usually means the bit is 1
• In NRZ-I
– The signal is inverted if a 1 is encountered
– A 0 bit is represented by no change
 Note

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component

problem.

Both have no self synchronization &no error

detection.

Both are relatively simple to implement.

4.18
 POLAR RZ encoding
• Signal change for synchronization purposes.
• A good encoded digital signal must contain a provision for
synchronization
 Note

Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from

high to zero or from low to zero.

This scheme has more signal transitions (two per

symbol) and therefore requires a wider bandwidth.

No DC components .
Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol
value.
More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no
error detection capability.

4.20
Polar Biphase: Manchester and Differential
Manchester
• Manchester coding consists of combining the
NRZ-L and RZ schemes.
– Every symbol has a level transition in the middle:
from high to low or low to high. Uses only two
voltage levels.
• Differential Manchester coding consists of
combining the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
– Every symbol has a level transition in the middle.
But the level at the beginning of the symbol is
determined by the symbol value. One symbol
causes a level change the other does not.

4.21
 Manchester encoding
• In Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the
bit is used for both synchronization and bit representation
 Differential Manchester encoding
• In differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the
middle of the bit is used only for synchronization.
• The bit representation is defined by the inversion or
noninversion at the beginning of the bit. A transition means
binary 0, and no transition means binary 1.
 Note

Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)

No dc component

Error detection

Requires more bandwidth

4.24
Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
• Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent
the symbols (note not transitions to zero as in RZ).
• Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the
other alternates between + & -.
• Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0”
symbol is represented by zero voltage and the “1”
symbol alternates between +V and -V.
• Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
Figure 4.9 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

4.26
 Representing Multilevel Codes

• We use the notation mBnL

• where m is the length of the binary pattern.
• B represents binary data.
• n represents the length of the signal pattern and
• L the number of levels. L = B binary, L = T for 3
ternary, L = Q for 4 quaternary.

4.27
Figure 4.10 Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme

4.28
Figure 4.11 Multilevel: 8B6T scheme

4.29
 Multilevel using multiple channels
• In some cases, we split the signal transmission and
distribute it over several links.
• The separate segments are transmitted
simultaneously.
• This reduces the signaling rate per link hence lower
bandwidth.

4.30
Figure 4.12 Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme

4.31
 Multitransition Coding
Figure 4.13 Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

4.32
Table 4.1 Summary of line coding schemes

4.33
 Block Coding
• For a code to be capable of error detection, we need to add
redundancy, i.e., extra bits to the data bits.

• Synchronization also requires redundancy - transitions are

important in the signal flow and must occur frequently.

• Block coding is done in three steps:

– division, substitution and combination.
• It is used using slash notation - xB/yB.

4.36
Figure 4.14 Block coding concept

4.37
 Figure 4.15 Block coding

• Stages of operation:
– Division, Substitution, Line Coding
Figure 4.15 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme

4.39
Figure 4.16 Substitution in block coding
 Analog to digital Conversion

 Conversion of analog signal into digital form is done using

sampling. Ex. Voice storage

 Pulse amplitude modulation has some applications, it is the

first step in analog to digital conversion method.

 Sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal at

equal intervals.
Figure 4.18 PAM
 Analog to digital Conversion

• Quantization is a method of assigning integral values

in a specific range to sampled instances.

• The binary digits are then transformed to a digital

signal by using one of the line coding techniques.
Figure 4.19 Quantized PAM signal
Figure 4.22 From analog signal to PCM digital code