Introduction to Boolean Algebra

• Binary logic is used in all of today's digital computers and

devices

• The cost of the circuits that implement it is an important

factor addressed by designers.

• Finding simpler and cheaper, but equivalent, realizations of a

circuit can reap huge payoffs in reducing the overall cost of
the design.

• Boolean algebra that will enable you to optimize simple

circuits and to understand the purpose of algorithms used by
software tools to optimize complex circuits 1
 Boolean Algebra
• A Boolean algebra is defined as a closed algebraic system
containing a set K or two or more elements and the two
operators, . and +.

• Useful for identifying and minimizing circuit functionality

• Identity elements

a+0=a

a.1=a

• 0 is the identity element for the + operation.

• 1 is the identity element for the . operation. 2

 Duality
• The principle of duality is an important concept. This says

that if an expression is valid in Boolean algebra, the dual of

that expression is also valid.

• To form the dual of an expression, replace all + operators

with . operators, all . operators with + operators, all ones

with zeros, and all zeros with ones.

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• Form the dual of the expression

a + (bc) = (a + b)(a + c)

• Following the replacement rules…

a(b + c) = ab + ac

• Take care not to alter the location of the parentheses if they

are present.

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 3.2Boolean Identities
Boolean Algebra

• Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form as

well as an OR (sum) form. The first group is rather
intuitive:

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 Boolean
3.2 Identities
Boolean Algebra

• The second group of Boolean identities should be

familiar from the study of algebra:

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 3.2Boolean Identities
Boolean Algebra

• The last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the

most useful.

• If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these laws

are also familiar to you.

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Postulates and Theorems of
Boolean Algebra

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 Theorem 1(a)
x+x=x
Proof: x + x = (x + x) • 1 //1 is the identity for AND Postulate 2(b)
= (x + x) • (x + x') //Complement, x + x' = 1 Postulate 5(a)
= x + (x • x') //OR distributes over AND Postulate 4(b)
=x+0 //Complement, x • x' = 0 Postulate 5(b)
=x //0 is the identity for OR Postulate 5(a)

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 Theorem 1(b)

x.x

= x =xx+0 // Postulate 2(a)

=xx+xx’ //Postulate 5(b)

=x(x+x’) // Postulate 4(a)

=x.1 //Postulate 5(a)

=x // Postulate 2(b)

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 Theorem 2(a)

x+1=1
Proof: x + 1
= 1 • (x + 1) //1 is the identity for AND Postulate 2(b)
= (x + x') • (x + 1) //Complement, x + x' = 1 Postulate 5(a)
= x + (x' • 1) //OR distributes over AND Postulate 4(b)
= x + x' //1 is the identity for AND Postulate 2(b)
=1 // Complement, x + x' = 1 Postulate 5(a)

Theorem 2(b) x.0=0 // by duality 11

 Theorem 3
Involution (x')' = x

Proof: Let x' be the complement of x and (x')' be the

complement of x'.
Then x + x' = 1, xx' = 0, x' + (x')' = 1, and x'(x')' = 0

(x')' = (x')' + 0 //0 is the identity for OR

= (x')' + xx' // Substitution, xx' = 0
= [(x')' + x][(x')' + x'] //OR distributes over AND
= [x + (x')'][x' + (x')'] //OR is commutative , twice
= [x + (x')'] • 1 //Substitution, x' + (x')' = 1
= [x + (x')'][x + x'] //Substitution, x + x' = 1
= x + [(x')' • x'] // OR distributes over AND
= x + [x' • (x')'] // AND is commutative
=x+0 //Substitution, x'(x')' = 0
=x // 0is the identity for OR 12
Theorem 6(a)
x + xy=x
Proof: x+xy=x.1+xy Postulate 2(b)
=x(1+y) Postulate 4(a)
=x(y+1) Postulate 3(a)
=x.1 Postulate 2(a)
=x Postulate 2(b)

Theorem 6(b)
x( x+y) =x by duality

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 Distributivity of the Operators
and Complements
• The Distributive Property:

For every a, b, and c in K,

– a+(b.c)=(a+b).(a+c)

– a.(b+c)=(a.b)+(a.c)

• The Existence of the Complement:

For every a in K there exists a unique element called a’

(complement of a) such that,

– a + a’ = 1

– a . a’ = 0 14
• To simplify notation, the . operator is frequently omitted.
When two elements are written next to each other, the AND
(.) operator is implied…

– a+b.c=(a+b).(a+c)

– a + bc = ( a + b )( a + c )

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 Commutativity and Associativity of
the Operators
• The Commutative Property:

For every a and b in K,

– a+b=b+a

– a.b=b.a

• The Associative Property:

For every a, b, and c in K,

– a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

– a . (b . c) = (a . b) . c
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 Involution
• This theorem states:

a’’ = a

• Remember that aa’ = 0 and a+a’=1.

– Therefore, a’ is the complement of a and a is also the

complement of a’.

– As the complement of a’ is unique, it follows that a’’=a.

• Taking the double inverse of a value will give the initial

value.

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 Absorption
• This theorem states:

a + ab = a a(a+b) = a

• To prove the first half of this theorem:

a + ab = a . 1 + ab

= a (1 + b)

= a (b + 1)

= a (1)

Therefore a + ab = a

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 De Morgan’s Theorem
3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Sometimes it is more economical to build a circuit using

the complement of a function (and complementing its
result) than it is to implement the function directly.

• De Morgan’s law provides an easy way of finding the

complement of a Boolean function.

• Recall De Morgan’s law states:

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 DeMorgan’s Theorem
• A key theorem in simplifying Boolean algebra expression is
DeMorgan’s Theorem. It states:
(a + b)’ = a’b’ (ab)’ = a’ + b’
• Complement the expression a(b + z(x + a’)) and simplify.

(a(b+z(x + a’)))’ = a’ + (b + z(x + a’))’

= a’ + b’(z(x + a’))’
= a’ + b’(z’ + (x + a’)’)
= a’ + b’(z’ + x’a’’)
= a’ + b’(z’ + x’a)

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 De Morgan’s Theorem
3.2 Boolean Algebra
• De Morgan’s law can be extended to any number of
variables.
• Replace each variable by its complement and change all
ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs.
• Thus, we find the complement of:

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Order of Precedence for Boolean
Operations
• How to interpret A∙B+C?

– Is it A∙B ORed with C ?

– Is it A ANDed with B+C ?

• Order of precedence for Boolean algebra: AND before OR.
• Note that parentheses are needed here :

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Order of Precedence for
3.2 Boolean Algebra
Boolean Operations

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