Effective Training: Systems,

Strategies, and Practices, 4th Edition

Chapter Five
P. Nick Blanchard, James W. Thacker, and V. Anand Ram

Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. 5-1

 Question
 Assume you have to prepare older
employees with little computer
experience to attend a training course
on how to use the World Wide Web.
How will you ensure that they have
high levels of readiness for training?
How will you determine their readiness
for training?
Copyright c 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice
Hall 2
 Training Design
 The design phase of training is a process of
identifying the set of specifications that will be used
in the development phase for creating the training
modules.
 Why is training needed and Who will be trained?
 What are the training objectives, and what methods
will be used?
 When and where will training take place?
 What are the principles that will be used to facilitate
the learning of the material and its transfer to the
job?
3
 Analysis Phase
Input Process Output
Organizational
Analysis
Objectives
Resources
Environment Training
Needs
TRIGGER
Operational Identify
Actual Organizational Analysis Performance
Performance Expected
Performance Discrepancy (PD)
(AOP) < Expected
(EP) PD = AP < EP
Organizational
And Causes of
Performance (EOP)
PD
Non
Person Analysis Training
Actual Needs
Performance
(AP)
4
 Design Phase
Input Process Output
Learning
Theory
Determine factors
that facilitate
learning & transfer
Develop
Training
Identify alternative
Needs
Training method of
instruction
Objectives
Evaluation
Organizational objectives
Constraints
 Training Process
Design is a planning activity
which in the context of training, Step 1
Identify the Needs
refers to the framework for
analyzing a training problem,
defining the intended outcome, Step 4
Evaluate the Step 2
determining how to present the Training Design the
Training
content to learners to achieve
those outcomes, developing the
training course according to the Step 3
Implement the
design, implementing the Training

course, evaluating its

effectiveness and devising
Cont….
follow-up activities.
Training designers will
have to consider certain
important factors before
designing a programme
from three perspectives Organizational
strategies and needs

namely cost, availability

and appropriateness. They
are (1) What materials
will be required to
Knowledge, skills and Training Existing knowledge,
implement the programme attitudes required for
the job
Context skills and attitudes of
the employee

in a particular way, (2)

what media will be used
and (3) what specialized
expertise will be required Environmental
compliance and
competition
for implementation of this
design (Warren, 1969). Context of training design
 Design Process
Designing a training programme involves a series of steps from

1) Identifying the learning objectives,

2) Determining the training content,

3) deciding the methodologies,

4) selecting the learning activities, defining

5) evaluation criteria and to specifying follow-up activities.

Cont….
 Contd.
 Even though it is the standard sequence of activities,
training managers may have some variations depending
upon the situations.
 For example, in some cases, determining the training
content, deciding the methodology and selecting learning
activities may have to be done simultaneously.
 Trainers should use instructional design to prepare all
types of instruction courses presented in the classroom,
through workbooks, or online. Figure (next slide) shows
the process of training design activities.

9
Training design process

Write down the

training design
Identify goals
and objectives

Determine
Identify follow training content
up activities

Decide
training
Define methodologies
evaluation
criteria
Identify learning
activities
Constraints of training
 Instructor Availability
 Time availability
 Training quality
 Budget constaints

11
 Some Organizational Constraints and
Ways of Dealing with Them
Part 1 of 3

Constraints Suggestion for How to Handle

1. Need high level of stimulation1 1A. Incorporate a longer lead time to

prepare simulations/role plays.
because:
Law (fire drills)
1B. Purchase Simulators.
Task critical to the job (police
firing gun)
Mistakes costly (airline pilot)

2. Trainees vary in amounts of 2. Use programmed instruction. Have

high level of trainer/trainee interaction.
experience

Trainees have large differences

in ability levels

5-12
 Some Organizational Constraints and
Ways of Dealing with Them
Part 2 of 3

Constraints Suggestion for How to Handle

Mix of employees and new hires Consider different training programs;

trained on a new procedure may be negative transfer for
employees but not for new hires.

Long lag between end of training Distribute practice through the lag.
and use of the skill on the
Provide refresher material and/or
job
models for employees to follow.

Short lead time Use external consultant or packaged

training.

5-13
 Some Organizational Constraints and
Ways of Dealing with Them
Part 3 of 3

Constraints Suggestion for How to Handle

Bias against a type of training Develop proof of effectiveness into

(role play, etc.) the training package.
Use another method.

Few trainees available at any

Use programmed instruction.
one time

Small organization with limited Hire consultant or purchase training.

funds Join consortium.

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 Training Objectives
 Objectives that are developed for training program. They are
generally of four types.
 Trainee Reaction objective: Objectives refers to the how
trainee should feel about the training and their learning
environment
 Learning objectives: Describe the KSAs that trainee are
expected to acquire throughout the training program, and the
ways that learning will be demonstrated.
 Transfer of training objectives: Describes the job behaviour
that will be affected by training, the conditions under which
these behaviours must occur. And sufficient transfer of learning
from training to the job has occurred.
 Organizational Outcome objectives: Describes the
organizational outcome that will be affected by the transfer of
learning to the job.
Copyright c 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as PrenticeHall 15
 Principles of training design
Gane (1972, p. 30) has suggested six principles of training design as under:
1. The objectives should be expressed in performance terms as far as
possible.
2. Learners should respond pro-actively to the material in a way that is
relevant to the training purpose.
3. Learners should receive immediate and unambiguous feedback as to how
correct their responses are.
4. Training systems must be validated and then modified if they do not
achieve the intended objectives.
5. Training system must adapt to the individual needs of the trainees.
6. Learners must be involved by having the material expressed in a way
Cont….

which they see as directly relevant to their interest and needs.

 Proposal for developing a one day
workshop on Effective Communication
Action Time Rate Total
Prepare
Interview relevant employees to determine 1 day $1,000 $1,000
issues and context to develop training
Develop objectives and plan for developing 2.5 days $1,000 $2,500
training. Includes identifying appropriate
instructional methods and developing
evaluation objectives
Develop training materials based on 8 days $1,000 $8,000
objectives
Develop usual aids and evaluation material 2.5 days $1,000 $2,500
Miscellaneous $1,400

TOTAL $15,400
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 Types of Costs in Training Programs

Development Costs
Direct Costs
Indirect Costs
Overhead Costs
Participant Compensation
Evaluation Costs

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 Training Costs for Grievance
Reduction Training – Part 1 of 2

Developmental Costs
1.20 days of director’s time at $50,000 per year $ 4,000
2. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year $ 600
3.Materials $ 1,000
Direct Costs
1. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year $ 600
2. Training facility rental 5 days at $150 per day $ 750
3. Materials and equipment $ 2,000
4. Coffee, juice, and muffins $ 600

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 Training Costs for Grievance
Reduction Training – Part 2 of 2
Indirect Costs
1. 1 day trainer preparation $ 120
2. 3 days administrative preparation at $ 240
20,000 per year
Participant Compensation
1. 30 supervisors attending 5-day workshop $21,000
(Average $35,000 / yr.)

Evaluation Costs
1. 6 days of evaluator’s time at $30,000 per year $ 720
2. Materials $ 800
Total Training Costs $32,430

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 Identifying the training
objective
• Identifying the training objective is fundamental to designing a programme.
The objectives state what the organization wants the employees to do
after the programme.
• The objectives should be clear, specific and attainable. An objective is a
clear statement of the performance to be achieved, under specified
conditions and standards. The identified needs and the analysis, provide a
basis for preparing the objectives.
• A decision is required to be made on the learning objectives to match job
performance, job conditions and job standards (Roscoe, 1995).
• Objectives should be set out from the learner’s perspective; they should
be specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and timebound
(Agochia,2002.p.95).
 For example, the objective for a car driving training
programme could be; the trainees after successful
completion of the programme:
 should be able to drive any motor car on city or
countryside roads;
 during any time of the day or night;
 safely in accordance with law, without causing injuries to
others or to themselves and
 without causing damage to the vehicle or to any other
property.

22
 Types of Training Objectives –
Part 1 of 2

Training objectives refers to all the objectives that are

developed for training program. There are generally
four types of training objectives:
1. Trainee Reaction Describes the desired trainee attitudinal
Objectives: and subjective evaluations of training by
the trainee

2. Learning Objectives: Describes the type of behavior that will

demonstrate the learning, the
conditions under which the behavior
must occur, and the criteria that will
signify that a sufficient level of learning
has occurred

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 Types of Training Objectives –
Part 2 of 2

3. Transfer of Training Describes job behaviors that will be

Objectives: affected by training, the conditions
under which those behaviors must
occur, and the criteria that will
signify that a sufficient transfer of
learning from training to the job has
occurred
4. Organizational Describes the organizational outcomes
Outcome that will be affected by the transfer of
Objectives: learning to the job and the criteria
that will signify that organizational
outcome objectives were achieved

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 Learning Objectives Improved
Part 1 of 3
Before After
Upon completion of training the Upon completion of training the trainee:
trainee:

Will be able to apply theories of After reading a scenario of an

motivation to different situations unmotivated student, and without the
use of any outside material, identify
orally to the class what you would do
to motivate the student, and explain
which theory you used and why.
Trainee must identify at least three
motivators and tie to correct theory.
Must be correct on four of the five
scenarios
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 Learning Objectives Improved
Part 2 of 3
Before After
Upon completion of training the Upon completion of training the trainee:
trainee:

Will be able to watch a fellow trainee role-

Will be able to recognize and play a situation and correctly explain in
identify different personalities, and writing what type of personality is being
know how to motivate them exhibited and what to do motivate the
trainee. Trainee must be 100 percent
correct on the personality and identify at
least two motivators
Will understand what is needed When asked, correctly identify to the
to have an effective team trainer five things that are necessary to
have an effective team and be 100
percent correct.
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 Learning Objectives Improved
Part 3 of 3

Correctly identify in writing three

Will have knowledge of three types types of active listening that were
of active listening, and will be able to identified in training, when asked
use the appropriate one in a
particular situation In a role play, respond verbally to
an angry comment using one of
Appropriate active listening types

Will be able to say no to boss In a role-play, respond correctly to the

and peers when asked to do situation using one of the ways of
extra work saying “no” from the training manual,
then explain to the class which
was used and why with 100 percent
accuracy
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 Learning Processes and
Corresponding Training Events
Attention/Expectancy Learning environment, pre-training
communications, statement of objectives and
Retention process, highlighting of key learning points
Activation of memory Stimulation of prior related learning
Symbolic coding and Presentation of encoding schemes and images,
cognitive organization associations with previously learned material,
order of presentation during training
Symbolic rehearsal and Case studies, hypothetical scenarios, aids for
cues for retrieval transfer (identical elements and principles)

Behavioral Reproduction Active and guided practice (role plays

and simulations)
Reinforcement Assessment and feedback (positive and/or
negative)
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 Comparison of Traditional and
Strategic Knowledge Training –
Part 1 of 3
Traditional Training Strategic Knowledge Training
Step 1. Declarative knowledge Step 1. Declarative knowledge is
(what) is presented Workers are told presented the same way as in
that the materials are designed to teach traditional training.
them to read and interpret quality
control charts used throughout their
organization.

Step 2. The context of the

procedures (why and when) is added
by instructing workers about the
importance of the skill and the
appropriate time for its use.
It is explained that reading and
interpreting quality control data allows
mistakes to be caught earlier, saving
more of the product than with traditional
methods.

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 Comparison of Traditional and
Strategic Knowledge Training –
Part 2 of 3

Traditional Training Strategic Knowledge Training

Step 2. Procedural knowledge (how) Step 3. Procedural knowledge (how)
is presented. would be presented the same way as
Workers are assisted in recalling in traditional training.
specific math skills. Then stimulus
materials and information required to
master the task are presented.
Examples of charts with various
readings are provided and the
workers are shown how to record
charts during production, and
interpret the data

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 Comparison of Traditional and
Strategic Knowledge Training –
Part 3 of 3
Traditional Training Strategic Knowledge Training
Step 3. Step 4.
Workers practice using the charts Workers practice using the charts
and interpreting the results. and also practice determining
when and why to use them.
Workers are provided opportunities for
rehearsal and reinforcement of both
conditional and procedural
knowledge.

Step 4. Step 5.
Workers are given feedback Workers would be given feedback
(same as in traditional training).

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 Seven Step Relapse-Prevention
Training
Step
1. Choose a skill to retain

2. Set goals

3. Commit to retain the skill

4. Learn coping (relapse prevention)

strategies
5. Identify likely circumstances for first
relapse

6. Practice coping (relapse prevention)

strategies
7. Learn to monitor target skill
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 A Plan to Apply Skills Back on the
Job
1. What is the skill/technique? (Be specific)
2. What will using skill/technique look like? (Be specific)
3. What are the positive and negative consequences of using and not
using the skill?
Positive (+) Negative (-)
Using Skill
Not Using
Skill

4. What will a “slip” look like?

5. How will you feel if you slip back to old techniques?
6. Under what circumstances is a slip likely to occur?
7. What support is needed?
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 Determine training structure
There are basically three kinds of training structures. They
are linear, spiral and modular. A linear structure is one in
which the lessons are arranged logically one after the other
from beginning to conclusion or from simple to complex.
Table shows the linear training structure.
Linear training structure

Sl.No. Topics to be covered

1 Introduction to training design
2 Objectives
3 Scope
4 Limitation Cont….

5 Conclusion
A spiral structure is the one in which easier topics of all the
interrelated subjects are taught first, then to the next level of
all interrelated subjects and then to the final level and so on.
Figure shows the spiral training structure.
Level 4
Spiral training structure
Level 3

Level 2

Level 1

Cont….
A modular structure is one in which a programme is
divided into small independent units with clear-cut beginning
and ending. This helps the learner to begin at any module
any time without having to complete the initial modules since
they are independent from one another.

Modular training structure

Module 1 Module 6 Module 11

Module 2 Module 7 Module 12
Module 3 Module 8 Module 13
Module 4 Module 9 Module 14
Module 5 Module 10 Module 15
 Comparison of Topical and Spiral
Sequencing 1 of 2
Topical Sequencing Spiral Sequencing
Topic A
Module 1 Topic A Topic B Topic C

Module 2 Module 1 Module 1 Module 1

Module 3

Topic B
Topic A Topic B Topic C
Module 1
Module 2 Module 2 Module 2
Module 2
Module 3
5-29
 Comparison of Topical and Spiral
Sequencing 2 of 2
Topic C Topic A Topic B Topic C

Module 1 Module 3 Module 3 Module 3

Module 2
Module 3

Topical Sequencing Spiral Sequencing

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 Comparison of Topical and Spiral
Sequencing
Advantages Disadvantages
Topical Concentrate on topic, no Once learned you move to
interference from other the next topic and the first is
topics forgotten

Spiral Built in synthesis and Disruption of learners

review Interrelationships thought process when move
are more obvious and to next topic
understood

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 Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of
Instruction – Part 1 of 2

Instructional Event Relation to Social Learning Theory

Gain attention Attention

Informing the trainee of Goal Attention

(objectives)

Stimulate recall of prior Retention: Activation of memory

knowledge

Present the material Retention: Activation of memory,

symbolic coding, cognitive
organization

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 Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of
Instruction – Part 2 of 2
Instructional Event Relation to Social Learning Theory

Provide guidance for learning Retention: Symbolic coding/ cognitive

organization through guided discovery
Retention: Symbolic Rehearsal

Elicit performance (practice) Behavioral Reproduction

Provide informative feedback Reinforcement

Assess performance

Enhance retention and transfer Reinforcement

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 Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 1 of 5
Gagne Briggs
Social learning
nine events Factors to Consider
Theory
of instruction

Pre- Attention/Expectancy
training 5- Influence expectations Identify those with low expectations/
& attitudes of trainees. poor attitudes send to pre-training
workshop
Provide information to influence
expectancies/ identify positive outcomes.
Demonstrate the need Do needs analysis so only relevant
for training and set trainees attend.
goals Discuss performance of trainee (at
supervisory level) and set mutual goals.
Have learning objectives distributed
ahead of time.

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 Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 2 of 5
Gagne Briggs
Social learning
9 events of Factors to Consider
Theory
instruction
Training Attention/ Gain Attention
Expectancy
Beginning Create/reinforce Allow time for instructor and trainee
positive attitude introductions and develop a
toward training relaxed atmosphere
Inform trainee Allow for time to go through needs
of goals analysis, show learning
objectives, and discuss
usefulness on the job; draw
example from trainees
Choose site where anxiety level will
Eliminate be low (see classical
distractions conditioning). Choose proper
facilities.
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 Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 3 of 5
Gagne Briggs
Social learning
9 events of Factors to Consider
Theory
instruction
During Retention
Make relevant Continue to focus on training
objectives

Stimulate Develop links between previous

recall of prior learning and the new learning
knowledge (activation of memory).

Use multiple media and make

Present interesting
material Ask questions and get involvement

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 Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 4 of 5
Gagne Briggs
Social learning
9 events of Factors to Consider
Theory
instruction
Make interesting Provide Get trainees involved (symbolic
guidance for rehearsal)
learning Use relevant examples and offer
many of them

Behavioral Elicit Provide relevant practice process

Reproduction/ performance (including maximum similarity
Reinforcement and/or different situations).
Encourage learning

Provide Let trainees know how they are

feedback doing.

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 Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 4 of 5
Gagne Briggs
Social learning
9 events of Factors to Consider
Theory
instruction
Reinforcement
Ending Be sure trainees see Assess Provide time for examining objectives
results of training performance to see what was accomplished.
Provide time to evaluate performance
level accomplished and provide
feedback

Sensitize trainees to Enhance Incorporate relapse-prevention

difficulty in transfer retention strategy. Provide commitment of
of training and transfer trainer to meet with trainees to
facilitate transfer.

Develop trainees goals for transfer of

training
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 Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 5 of 5
Gagne Briggs
Social learning
9 events of Factors to Consider
Theory
instruction
Post- Reinforcement Obtain support from supervisor/
Training Facilitate transfer peers/ trainer to help trainee in
transferring the training to the
workplace.

Ensure that reward systems are in

line with newly trained behaviors.

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