LIQUID & SOLID

Erinne Dwi Amadea/01034190002

Febiana Salim Pranata/01034190008
Timothy Marvel/01034190031
9.1 ● In an open container, evaporation continues

Liquid-Vapor until all the liquid is gone.

● In a closed container,the vapor molecules

Eqilibrium
cannot escape from the container. Some
collide with the surface and reenter the
liquid. As the time passes, the concentration
of molecules in the vapor increases, so does
the rate of condensation.
● When the rate of condensation becomes
equal to the rate of evaporization, the liquid
and vapor are in a state of dynamic
equilibrium.

Liquid ͍ vapor
Vapor Pressure

When equilibrium is reached, the It is important to realize that so long as

number of molecules per unit volume in both liquid and vapor are present, the
vapor does not change with time. This pressure exerted by the vapor is
means the pressure exerted by the vapor independent of the volume of the container.
over the liquid remains constant. The The greater the volume of the container,
pressure of vapor in equilibrium with a the greater will be the amount of liquid
liquid is called vapor pressure. that vaporizes to establish that pressure.
The ratio n/V stays constant, so P =
nRT/V does not change.
Vapor Pressure Versus Temperature

The vapor pressure of a liquid always increases as temperature

rises. The graph of vapor pressure versus temperature is not a
straight line. Instead, the slope increases steadily as temperature
rises, reflecting the fact that more molecules vaporize at higher
temperatures.

it is possible to obtain a linear function by making a shifting the

variables. Instead of plotting vapor pressure (P) versus
temperature (T), we plot the natural logarithm of the vapor
pressure (In P) versus the reciprocal of the absolute temperature
(1/T)
For many purposes, it is convenient to have a two-point relation between the vapor
pres- sures (P2,P1) at two different temperatures (T2, T1).

This equation is known as the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. In using the Clausius-Clapeyron

equation, the units of 𝚫H and R must be consistent. If 𝚫H is expressed in joules, then R must
be expressed in joules per mole per kelvin.

R = 8.31 J/mol K
 Boiling Point
When a liquid is heated in an open container,
bubbles form. Eventually, at a certain
temperature, large vapor bubbles form
throughout the liquid. These vapor bubbles rise to
the surface, where they break.

For a vapor bubble to form, the pressure within it,

P, must be at least equal to the pressure above
it, a liquid boils at a temperature at which its vapor
pressure is equal to the pressure above its surface. If
this pressure is 1 atm (760 mm Hg), the
temperature is referred to as the normal boiling
point.
Critical Temperature and Pressure

The critical pressure is the vapor pressure of the liquid at the critical temperature.

Above the critical temperature and pressure, a substance is referred to as a

supercritical fluid. Such fluids have unusual solvent properties that have led to
many practical applications.
9.2 Phase Diagrams

For a pure substance, at least two types of of phase equilibria need

to be considered :

- A solid - Its vapor

- Solid - Liquid (melting / freezing point)
- Liquid - Its vapor
1. AB = Portion of the vapor P-T
curve of liquid water. Along this
line water is in equilibrium with
its vapor.

2. AC = Represents the vapor

pressure curve of ice. Along this
line, ice and vapor are in
equilibrium with each other.

3. AD = Liquid is in equilibrium
with ice

4. A = Triple Point
Sublimation

The process by which a solid changes directly to vapor without

passing through the liquid. (below triple point)

A solid can be made to sublime by reducing the pressure of the

vapor above it to less than the equilibrium value.

Iodine sublimes more readily than ice because it has much higher
triple point pressure.
Melting Point

Represents the temperature at which solid and liquid phases are in

equilibrium.

Measured in an open container (at atmospheric pressure)

As increase in pressure favors the formation of the more dense

phase.
1. The solid is more dense phase : The melting point is raised by
an increase in pressure.

2. The liquid is the more dense phase : An increase in pressure

favors the formation of liquid ; that is, the melting point is
decreased by raising the pressures.
 Molecular Substances ;
9.3

Intermolecular Forces
Molecular Substances ;
Intermolecular Forces
1. Nonconductors of electricity when pure 3. Low melting and boiling

Molecules are uncharged, so they cannot carry (N2, O2, CO2): have boiling points below 25oC
an electric current.
(H2O and CCl4): have melting points below room
Nonconductors: iodine, I2, ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH, temperature
water solutions of molecular substances
Molecular substances that are solids at ordinary
Conductors: a few polar molecules, HCl, react temperature, most are low-melting.
with water and hence produce a conducting
water solution. Ex: iodine melts at 114oC, naphthalene melts at
80oC
1. Insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar
solvents such as CCl4, or benzene

Slightly soluble in water: iodine

Very soluble in water: ethyl alcohol

Dipersion (London) Forces
The most common type of intermolecular force

All moleules have dipersion forces. The strength of these forces depends on two factors:

● The number of electrons in the atoms that make up the molecule

● The ease with which electrons are dispersed to form temporary dipoles

As molar mass increases, dispersion forces become stronger and the boiling point of
nonpolar molecular substances increases.
Dipole Forces

Polar molecules, like nonpolar molecules, are attracted to one another by dispersion forces.

Adjacent molecules line up so that the negative pole of one

molecule is as close as possible to the positive pole of its neighbor.
There is an electrical attractive force, referred to as dipole force,
between adjacent polar molecules.
Hydrogen Bonds
The unusually high boiling point points of 2 reasons why hydrogen bonds are
HF, H2O, and NH3 result from an unusually stronger than ordinary dipole forces:
strong type of dipole force called a
hydrogen bond. The hydrogen bond is a 1. The difference in electronegativity
force exerted between an H atom bonded between hydrogen and fluorine,
to an F, O, or N atom in one molecule and oxygen, or nitrogen is quite large.
an unshared pair on the F, O, or N atom of 2. The small size of the hydrogen atom
a neighboring molecule. allows that unshared pair of an F, O,
or N atom of one molecule to
approach the H atom in another very
closely.

All the forces are relatively weak compared with ordinary covalent bond.
 Network Covalent,
9.4

Ionic, and Metallic Solids

Types of nonmolecular solids

● network covalent solids, in which atoms are joined by a

continuous network of covalent bonds. The entire
arystal, in effect, consists of one huge molecule
● ionic solids, held together by strong electrical forces
(ionic bonds) between oppositely charged ions adjacent
to one another
● metallic solids, in which the structural units are electrons
(e) and cations, which may have charges of +1, +2, or
+3
Network Covalent Solids
● have high melting points, often about 1000 C
To melt the solid, covalent bonds between atoms must be broken. In this respect,
solids of this type differ markedly from molecular solids, which have much lower
melting points.

● are insoluble in all common solvents.

For solution to occur, covalent bonds throughout the solid would have to be
broken.

● are poor electrical conductors

In most network covalent substances (graphite is an exception), there are no

mobile electrons to carry a current.
Graphite and Diamond
Both graphite and diamond have high melting points, above 3500°C. However, the bonding
patterns in the two solids are quite different.

In diamond, each carbon atom forms single bonds with four other carbon atoms arranged
tetrahedrally around it. The hybridization in diamond is p.

Graphite is planar, with the carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern. Each carbon atom
is bonded to three others, two by single bonds, one by & double bond. The hybridization is
sp.
Silicon

The simplest compound with a network covalent structure is quartz,

the most common form of SiO2 and the major component of sand.

In quartz, each silicon atom bonds to four oxygen atoms. Each

oxygen atom bonds to two silicons.

More than 90 % of the rocks and minerals found in the earth’s crust
are sllicates, which are essentially ionic
 Ionic Solids
An ionic solid consists of cations and anions.

1. Ionic solids are nonvolatile and have high-melting points (600 ℃ to 2000 ℃)
2. Ionic solids do not conduct electricity because the charged ions are fixed in position
3. Many, but not all, ionic compounds are soluble in water, a polar solvent.

The relative strength of different ionic bonds can be estimated from Coulomb’s law:

Coulomb’s law should depend on two factors:

1. The charges of ions
2. The size of the ions
Metals

1. High electrical conductivity

2. High thermal conductivity
3. Ductility and malleability
4. Luster
5. Insolubility in water and other common solvents
9.5 Crystal Structures
Solid tend to crystalize in definite geometric forms
that often can be seen by the naked eye.

It’s possible to observe distinct crystal forms of

many metals under a microscope.

Crystals have definite geometric forms because

the atoms or ions present are arranged in a
definite, three-dimensional pattern.
Metals

1. Simple cubic cell (SC)

Consists of eight atoms whose centers are located at the
corners of the cell.
2. Face-centered cubic cell (FCC)
There’s an atom in each corner of the cube and one in the
center of each of the six faces of the cube.
3. Body-centered cubic cell (BCC)
There’s and atom at each corner and one in the center of the
cube that do not touch each other.
Relation between side
of cell(s) and atomic
radius (r)
Consider an PCC cell in which atoms touch along a face diagonal.

- The distance along the face diagonal, d, is equal to four atomic

radii
d = 4r
- d can be related to the length of a side of the cell by
Pythagorean theorem , d2= s2+ s2 = 2s2 , taking the square root
of both sides,

- Equating the two expressions for d, we have

This relation offers an experimental way of determining the atomic

raiud of a metal, if the nature and dimensions of the unit cell are
known
Ionic Crystals

In Lithium chloride, LiCl, the larger Cl- ions form a face-

centered cubic lattice.

The smaller Li+ ions fit into “holes” between Cl- ions.

In Sodium chloride, NaCl, the Na+ is slightly too large to fit into holes in a
face-centered lattice of Cl-

The Ca+ ion, CaCl crystalizes in a quite different structure. The Ca+ ion at
the center touches all the Cl- ions at the corners; the Cl- ions don’t touch
each other.
 Questions

1. How do we know that a liquid has reached their boiling

point?
2. What does melting point represent?
3. What is ionic solids?
4. What formula can be used to determine the relative
strength of different ionic bonds?
5. State 3 out of 5 characteristic properties of metals.
 Answers

1. Liquids boils at temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to

pressure above its surface.
2. Melting point represents the temperature at which solid and liquid
phases are in equilibrium.
3. Ionics solids are solids held together by strong electrical forces (ionic
bonds) between oppositely charged ions adjacent to one another.
4. E = (K.Q1.Q2) / d
5. - high electrical conductivity
- high thermal conductivity
- ductile and malleable
- Luster
- insoluble with water and other common solvents