COMPUTER NETWORKS
CS610
Lecture-3
Hammad Khalid Khan
Types of Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM0)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Review Lecture 2
Resource Sharing
Growth of the Internet
– Linear Scale
– Log Scale
Tools for Probing the Internet
– PING
– TRACE ROUTE
CHAPTER No. 4
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Basic Idea
Encode data as energy and transmit energy
Decode energy at destination back into data
Energy can be electrical, light, radio, sound, ...
Each form of energy has different properties and
requirements for transmission
Transmission media
Transmitted energy is carried through some sort of medium
Transmitter encodes data as energy and transmits energy
through medium
– Requires special hardware for data encoding
– Requires hardware connection to transmission medium
Transmission media
Media can be copper, glass, air, ...
Copper Wires
Widely used because of low resistance to electric current,
inexpensive and easy to install
Twisted pair wires
– Two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
Interference
– Examples: Telephone wiring (one pair).LAN wiring UTP
cable (4 pairs of copper wire)
Types of Media
GUIDED Media:
Uses physical path
– Examples: copper wires, optical fiber, coaxial cables
etc.
UNGUIDED Media:
Uses no physical path
– Example: Radio waves
Coaxial Cable
Single wire surrounded by an insulation and a metal
shield against interference
Example use: Cable TV wiring and early LAN wirings
Optical Fibers
Uses light to transport data
Advantages of Optical Fibers
Neither causes nor susceptible to electrical interference
Can carry pulse much farther than copper
Light can encode more information than electric
One single fiber is sufficient to carry data
Radio
Used for public radio and TV broadcast
Data transmission is said to operate at Radio Frequency
(RF)
Transmission range depends on antenna size
Satellites
Satellites for long distance
transmission
Satellite transponders receive,
amplify, and transmit the RF
signal back to the ground
Geosynchronous Satellites
Placed in an orbit (at 35,785 km or 22,223 miles above the
earth) that is exactly syncronized with the rotation of the
earth
From the ground, it appears to stay at the same position at
all times
Low Earth Orbit Satellites
Rotates faster than the rotation of the earth at 200 to
400 miles above the earth
They do not appear to remain stationary
Low Earth Orbit Satellite Arrays is a set of satellites
communicating with each other and with the earth
surface
Microwave
Electromagnetic radiation beyond the frequency range
used for radio and TV
It can be aimed in a single direction
Can carry more information than low frequency RF
transmissions
Infrared
Remote controls used with TV etc uses IR
Inexpensive wireless communication
Limited to a small area
Convenient for portable computers
CHAPTER No. 5
LOCAL ASYNCHRONOUS
COMMUNICATION
(RS-232)
Introduction
Computers use binary digits (0s and 1s) (bits) to
represent data
Computers communicate by sending bits through a
transmission medium (i.e. cable, air).
This chapter describes how electric current is used to
send digital information across Short Distances
The Need For Async Communication
In asynchronous communication the sender and
receiver do not need to coordinate (synchronize)
before the transmission begins
In an asynchronous system, the receiving hardware
must be ready to accept and interpret the signal
whenever it arrives
Using Electric Current to Send Bits
A small electric current is used to encode data
Example: Negative voltage to represent a 0 bit, positive
voltage to represent a 1 bit.
Standards For Communication
Standard specifies both the timing of the signals and
the electrical details of voltage and current
RS232-C (by EIA) is one of the most widely used
standard to transfer characters between a computer
and a device such as modem, keyboard etc.
RS-232 defines a serial (bits are sent one after
another) asynchronous communication
RS232-C Specifications
Cable length < 50 feet (20mt)
-15v (bit 1) , +15v (bit 0)
One character => 7 or 8 data bits
No delay between character bits
When idle, puts -15v (bit 1) on the wire
Each character start with a start bit(0), and end with a stop
bit(1)
Baud Rate, Framing, And Errors
Baud rate:
– The number of changes in the signal per second
For simple RS-232, Baud rate = Number of bits/sec
If the voltage measurements do not all agree or if the stop
bit does not occur exactly at the same time expected,
framing errors occur
Full-Duplex Asynchronous Comm
Electrical circuits require at least two wires, one of
them to carry the data signal, the other is used as
the return path, called ground
Simultaneous transfers in two directions are
known as full-duplex transmission
Full-Duplex Asynchronous Comm
CHAPTER No. 6
LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION
(Carriers, Modulation and Modems)
Long Distance Communication
Electric current becomes weaker as it travels over
copper
Signal loss occurs when RS232 is attempted to use to
communicate to a remote site
A continuous, oscillating signal, called a Carrier,
propagates farther than other signals
Modulation
To send data, a transmitter slightly modifies the original
information by using a carrier
Such modifications are called “Modulation”
The receiver
– monitors the incoming carrier,
– detects modulation,
– reconstructs the original data, and
– discards the carrier
Types of Modulation
Three of the modulation schemes are:
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Phase Modulation (PM)
Modem
A Modulator is a hardware circuit that
– accepts a sequence of data bits
– applies modulation to a carrier wave according to the
bits
A Demodulator is a hardware circuit that
– accepts a modulated carrier wave and
– recreates the sequence of data bits
A Modem is a hardware that combines both modulator and
demodulator in a single device
Modem
Multiplexing
Q: How can two or more signals can be transmitted
simultaneously over a single wire ?
A: By using different carrier frequencies
Career Frequencies And
Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
– Using multiple carrier frequencies to allow
independent signals, to travel through a medium
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
FDM concept applied to the optical transmission
systems (optical fibers) is known as Wave Division
Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Sources sharing a medium “take turns” to send data
Synchronous TDM gives each source an opportunity to
send data
Statistical TDM does not give chance to a source that
does not have data to send
