Research Design

A research design is:

• a framework for executing the research project -
the research plan of action.
• a master plan that specifies the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information;
• a blueprint or strategy for how the data will be
collected.
• The research design details the procedures
necessary for obtaining the information needed to
achieve the research objectives.
1
Classification of Marketing Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Design Research Design

Descriptive Causal Research

Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Design Sectional Design
2
 Characteristics: Basic Research Designs
Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Discovery of ideas Describe phenomenon Determine cause
Objective: and insights and/or its features or and effect
functions relationships

Flexible, versatile Marked by the prior

Characteristics: Manipulation of
Often the front end formulation of specific
one or more
of total research hypotheses
independent
design variables
Preplanned and
structured design Control of other
mediating and/or
•Expert interviews •Secondary data moderating
•Pilot surveys •Surveys variables
•Secondary data •Panels
Methods: •Observation and other
•Qualitative
research data •Experiments 3
 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and

Objective understanding of the generalize the results of
underlying reasons sample for population

Sample Small number of non- Large number of

representative cases representative cases
Data
Collection Unstructured Structured

Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical

Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final course

understanding of action 4
 Qualitative Research Orientations
From page: 133. Chapter 7

Four main qualitative research orientations

• Phenomenology – originating in philosophy

and psychology
• Ethnography – origins in anthropology
• Grounded theory – originates from sociology
• Case studies – roots in psychology and
business research
5
 Phenomenology
• Based on the ideas that:
1. human experience is inherently subjective and determined
by the context in which a person lives
2. behavior is shaped by a person’s relationship with the
environment in which s/he lives
3. therefore the best way to understand this behavior is to
understand the context in which the behavior occurs
4. this engaging in a conversational interview with the subject
• Researcher may need to become part of the “group” to
effectively study it
• Special form is hermeneutics – relying on analysis of
texts in which a person tells a story about themselves
6
 Ethnography
• Methods of studying cultures through becoming
highly active in the culture.
• Typically uses observation as a data collection
tool, hence the term participant-observation.
• The observation can be human or mechanical;
but is often purposeful, i.e. focusing on specific
features of behaviors that are of interest to the
study

7
 Grounded Theory
• Inductive investigation process in which the
researcher uses empirical evidence to develop a
theory for explaining a given phenomenon
• Researcher repeatedly poses questions about the
observed evidence and uses the responses to
develop a deeper explanation (theory)
• Particularly applicable in dynamic situations
involving significant change – where new
insights are needed to explain phenomena that
have not been previously encountered

8
 Case Studies
• Documented history of a particular person,
group, organization, or event.
• This intense examination of one or a few
situations typically:
– Involves in-depth investigation and careful
study
– Requires cooperation from the investigated
subjects (cases)
• Case analyses are used to develop themes
that can help explain a phenomenon
• Used extensively in business research and
teaching
9
 Classification: Qualitative Research
Qualitative research

Case study Pilot study Secondary data analysis

Direct (Non Indirect

disguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Depth Interviews Techniques
Focus Groups

Association Completion Construction Expressive

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques 10
 Focus Group Discussions
• Interviews (discussions) conducted in an
unstructured and natural manner by a trained
moderator with a small group of respondents
• Unstructured, free-flowing interviews with a
small group of people about the subject area of
the research

• An increasingly popular research technique used

by marketers to discover how consumers think,
feel, and talk about their products
11
 Making Focus Groups Successful
• Group Size 8-12
• Group Composition Homogeneous, respondents, screened

• Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere

• Time Duration 1-3 hours
• Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes
• Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and
communication skills of the moderator
•Discussion outline Written prefatory remark and an
outline of topics to be address in a
focus group
12
 Making Focus Groups Successful cntd…

Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes

Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and
communication skills of the moderator

Discussion line Written prefatory remark and an

outline of topics to be address in a
focus group

13
 Variations in Focus Groups
• Two-way focus group:
One target group listen to and learn from a related group.
e.g, a focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of
arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired.
• Dual-moderator group:
One of the TWO moderators is responsible for smooth
flow of session, other ensures that specific issues are
discussed.
• Dueling-moderator group:
Two moderators, but they deliberately take opposite
positions on the issues to be discussed.
• Respondent-moderator group:elected participants play the
role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.
14
 Variations in Focus Groups
• Two-way focus group:
One target group to listen to and learn from a related group.
e.g. a focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of
patients discussing the treatment they desired

• Dual-moderator group:

Two moderators, one responsible for the smooth flow of

session, and other ensures that specific issues are discussed.

• Dueling-moderator group

Two moderators, but they deliberately take opposite

positions on the issues to be discussed.
15
 Variations in Focus Groups cntd…
• Client-participant groups:
Clienteles are made part of the discussion group.
• Mini groups:
Groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5
respondents.
• Tele-session groups:
Group sessions by phone using conference call
technique.
• Online Focus groups:
Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.
16
 Depth Interviews
• Direct, in-depth interview with individual
respondent (as opposed to a group of respondents)
• Individual is probed by the interviewer to uncover
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes,
perceptions, and feelings on a topic.
• Unstructured and free flowing in nature
• Alternative techniques are:
– Laddering
– Hidden Issue Questioning
– Symbolic Analysis

17
Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering
• Depth interview technique in which the line of
questioning proceeds from one level to
another, say from product characteristics to
user characteristics.

• Allows the researcher to tap into the

consumer's network of meanings.

18
 Laddering: an example
Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)

I can get more work done

I accomplish more

I feel good about myself (user characteristic)

Advertising theme: You will feel good about

yourself when flying our airline. “You're The Boss.”

19
Depth Interview Techniques: Hidden Issue
Questioning
• A type of depth interview in which the researcher
attempts to locate personal sore spots related to deeply
felt personal concerns

• Focus is not on socially shared values but rather on

personal “sore spots;” not on general lifestyles but on
deeply felt personal concerns.
– fantasies, work lives, and social lives
– historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” competitive
activities
– Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, high
status, and competitive heritage of the airline.

20
 Depth Interview Techniques: Symbolic
Analysis
• Depth interview technique in which researcher attempts to
analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing them with
their opposites.
• Logical opposites of a product that could be investigated are:
– non-usage of the product
– attributes of an imaginary “non-product,”
– opposite types of products.
Question: “What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”
Answer: “Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long distance
calls.”
Implication: Airlines sell face-to-face communication to managers
Possible Advertising theme: An airline does for a manager what a courier
service does for a package.
21
 Projective Techniques
• An unstructured, indirect form of
questioning that encourages respondents to
project their underlying motivations, beliefs,
attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of
concern.
• In projective techniques, respondents are
asked to interpret the behavior of others.

22
 Projective Techniques: cntd…

• In interpreting the behavior of others,

respondents indirectly project their own
motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into
the situation.
• Based on the philosophy that: “A man is least
himself when he talks in his own person;
when given a mask he will tell the truth.”
(Oscar Wilde)

23
 Projective Techniques :Types
Projective Techniques

Construction Word Completion Expressive

Technique Association technique technique

Picture Cartoon Sentence Paragraph

response(TAT) Test completion completion

Role Third
playing person
24
 Projective Techniques: Word
Association Tests
• Respondents are presented with a list of
words, one at a time and asked to respond
to each with the first word that comes to
mind.

• Words of interest, called test words, are

interspersed throughout the list which also
contains some neutral, or filler words to
disguise the purpose of the study.
25
 Word Association Tests
STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C
Washday Everyday Ironing
Fresh Sweet Clean
Pure Air Solid
Filth Neighborhood Dirt
Bubble Bath Soap & Water
Family Squabbles Children
Towels Dirty Wash
26
 Word Association Tests: Analysis of
Responses
Responses are analyzed by calculating:
• the frequency with which any word is
given as a response;
• the amount of time that elapses before a
response is given; and
• the number of respondents who do not
respond at all to a test word within a
reasonable period of time.
27
 Completion Techniques

• Projective techniques in which respondents

are asked to complete an incomplete stimulus
situation

• Two Types
– Story completion
– Sentence completion

28
 Completion Techniques
• Story completion
Respondents are given part of a story – enough
to direct attention to a particular topic but not to
hint at the ending. They are required to give the
conclusion in their own words.

• Example
– Will X mind telling us part of his story
concerning his recent encounter with Agrani
bank so that we can try to complete it?

29
Projective techniques: Completion techniques
• Sentence completion:
Respondents are given incomplete sentences
and asked to complete them. Generally,
they are asked to use the first word or phrase
that comes to mind.

• A variation of sentence completion is

paragraph completion, in which the
respondent completes a paragraph beginning
with the stimulus phrase.

30
 Sentence completion: Example

GP customer personnel are _________

Whenever I have to visit the bank for a

transaction I _______________

Anytime I have to travel, I prefer_______

31
 Projective Techniques: Construction
Techniques
• Projective techniques that require respondents to
construct a response from a story, dialogue, or
description

• Two Types

– Picture response (Thematic Apperception Test)

– Cartoon tests

32
Projective Technique: Picture response
• Also known as Thematic Appreciation Test
• Respondents are asked to describe a series
of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual
events.
• Respondent's interpretation of the pictures
gives indications of their individual
personalities.

33
 Projective Technique: Cartoon response
• Respondents are shown cartoon characters in
a specific situation related to the problem.
• Respondents are asked to indicate what one
cartoon character might say in response to the
comments of another character.
• Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and
analyze than picture response techniques.

34
 Expressive Techniques
• Projective technique where respondents are presented
with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the
feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
1. Role playing - Respondents are asked to play the role
or assume the behavior of someone else
2. Third-person technique - Respondents are presented
with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the
beliefs and attitudes of a third person (e.g. friend,
neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person) rather than
directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes.

35
 Advantages of Projective Techniques
• They may elicit responses that subjects would
be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the
purpose of the study.
• Helpful when the issues to be addressed are
personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social
norms.

• Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs,

and attitudes are operating at a subconscious
level.
36
 Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
• Suffer from many of the disadvantages of
unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater
extent.
• Require highly trained interviewers.
• Skilled interpreters are also required to
analyze the responses.
• There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
• They tend to be expensive.
• May require respondents to engage in unusual
behavior.
37
 Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth Interviews,
and Projective Techniques

Criteria Focus Depth Projective

Groups Interviews Techniques
1. Degree of Structure Relatively high Relatively medium Relatively low
2. Probing of individual Low High Medium
respondents
3. Moderator bias Relatively medium Relatively high Low to high
4. Interpretation bias Relatively low Relatively medium Relatively high
5. Uncovering Low Medium to high High
subconscious
information
6. Discovering innovative High Medium Low
information
7. Obtaining sensitive Low Medium High
information
8. Involve unusual No To a limited Yes
behavior or questioning extent
9. Overall usefulness Highly useful Useful Somewhat
useful 38
 Applications of Qualitative Research
Methodological Applications
1. To understand the possible causes of a research
problem
2. To better define a research problem
3. To develop an approach to a research problem
4. To generate hypotheses for testing
5. To useful information for structuring questionnaires
6. To help interpret previously obtained quantitative
information

39
 Applications of Qualitative Research
Some Substantive Applications
1. To understand consumers’ perceptions,
preferences, and behavior as relates to a product
or product category
2. To obtain impressions of new product concepts
3. To generate new ideas about older products
4. To develop creative concepts and copy materials
for adverts
5. To obtain preliminary consumer reactions to
specific marketing problems
40
Descriptive research

41
 Descriptive Research
• Major objective of describing something
• Uses - It is carried out for following reasons:
› To describe the characteristics of relevant groups,
such as consumers, salespeople, organizations, or
market areas.
› To estimate the percentage of units in a specified
population exhibiting a certain behavior.
› To determine the perceptions of product features.
› To determine the degree to which variables are
associated.
› To make specific predictions
• Usually concerned with 6 Ws
42
Descriptive Research: Cross-sectional Designs
• Various segments of a population are sampled
and data collected only once (at a single point
in time).
– In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one
sample of respondents and information is obtained
from this sample only once.
– In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two
or more samples of respondents, and information
from each sample is obtained only once. Often,
information from different samples is obtained at
different times.
43
Descriptive Research: Longitudinal Designs
Longitudinal studies: studies in which data are
collected at different points in time using:
a) successive (different) samples in a tracking
study or cohort study.
b) the same sample in a panel study (consumer
panels, retailer panels, etc).
• Note: A cohort is a group of respondents who experience
the same event within the same time interval.
• A cohort study is a series of surveys conducted at
appropriate time intervals, where the cohort serves as the
basic unit of analysis.

44
• To investigate if there is any difference in soft
drink consumption of the consumers of
different age group
• To investigate the change in the pattern of soft
drink consumption with the age of the
consumers

45
 Cross-Sectional Data May Not Show Change

Brand Purchased Time Period

Period 1 Period 2
Survey Survey
Brand A 200 200
Brand B 300 300
Brand C 500 500
Total 1000 1000

46
 Longitudinal Data May Show Substantial
Change

Brand Brand Purchased in Period 2

Purchased in
Period 1 Brand A Brand B Brand C Total

Brand A 100 50 50 200

Brand B 25 100 175 300
Brand C 75 150 275 500
Total 200 300 500 1000

47
 Usefulness of Longitudinal Surveys: Cohort Analysis of Consumption
Trends (Per Capita consumption of soft drinks by various age categories)

Age Per Capita consumption, 1979

20-29 yrs 48 gallons

30-39 yrs 42 gallons
40-49 yrs 35 gallons
50+ yrs 24 gallons
Source: Joseph O. Rents. Fred D. Reynolds, and Roy G. Stout, “Analyzing
Changing consumption patterns with cohort analysis,” Journal of
marketing research, 20 (February 1983), p. 12. published by the American
Marketing Association.

48
Usefulness of Longitudinal Surveys: Consumption of soft drinks by various age
cohorts (percentage consuming on a typical day)
Age 1950 1960 1969 1979
8-19 52.9 62.6 73.2 81.0
20-29 45.2 60.7 76.0 75.8 C8
30-39 33.9 46.6 67.7 71.4 C7
40-49 28.2 40.8 58.6 67.8 C6
50+ 18.1 28.8 50.0 51.9 C5
C1 C2 C3 C4
C1 – cohort born prior to 1900 C5 – cohort born 1931 – 1940
C2 – cohort born 1901 – 1910 C6 – cohort born 1940 – 1949
C3 – cohort born 1911 – 1920 C7 – cohort born 1950 – 1959
C4 – cohort born 1921 – 1930 C8 – cohort born 1960 – 1969
Source: Joseph O. Rents. Fred D. Reynolds, and Roy G. Stout, “Analyzing Changing
consumption patterns with cohort analysis,” journal of marketing research, 20
(February 1983), p. 12. published by the American Marketing Association. 49
 Consumption of Various Soft Drinks
by Various Age Cohorts
Percentage consuming on a typical day
Age 1950 1960 1969 1979

8-19 52.9 62.6 73.2 81.0

20-29 45.2 60.7 76.0 75.8 C8
30-39 33.9 46.6 67.7 71.4 C7
40-49 23.2 40.8 58.6 67.8 C6
50+ 18.1 28.8 50.0 51.9 C5
C1 C2 C3 C4

C1: cohort born prior to 1900 C5: cohort born 1931-40

C2: cohort born 1901-10 C6: cohort born 1940-49
C3: cohort born 1911-20 C7: cohort born 1950-59
C4: cohort born 1921-30 C8: cohort born 1960-69
50
Causal Research

51
 Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y " will have the following meaning to an
ordinary person and to a research.
____________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
____________________________________________________
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.

X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the occurrence

(X is a deterministic of Y more probable (X is a probabilistic
cause of Y). cause of Y).

It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a cause of Y.

that X is a cause of Y. At best, we can infer that X is a cause of Y

52
 Degrees of Causality
• Absolute Causality
– The cause is necessary and sufficient to bring
about the effect.
• Conditional Causality
– A cause is necessary but not sufficient to bring
about an effect.
• Contributory Causality
– A cause need be neither necessary nor sufficient to
bring about an effect.
– Weakest form of causality.
53
 Conditions for Causality
• Concomitant variation is the extent to which a
cause, X, and an effect, Y, occur together or vary
together in the way predicted by the hypothesis
under consideration.
•

• Temporal sequence: The time order of occurrence

condition states that the causing event must occur
either before or simultaneously with the effect; it
cannot occur afterwards.
• Nonspurious association: The absence of other
Plausible (reasonable) causal factors means that the
factor or variable being investigated should be the
only possible causal explanation.

54
 Fundamental Concepts
• Independent variable
variables or alternatives that are manipulated and whose
effects are measured and compared, e.g., price levels.
• Dependent variables
variables which measure the effect of the independent
variables on the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market
shares.
• Test units
individuals, organizations, or other entities whose
response to the independent variables or treatments is
being examined, e.g., consumers or stores.
55
 Fundamental Concepts Cntd…
• Extraneous variables
variables other than the independent variables that affect
the response of the test units, e.g., store size, store
location, and competitive effort.
• Treatment group
Test units subject to the application of experiment – on
which effect of independent variables are measured
• Controlled group
Test units allowed to be operated in as usual condition
(without application of the independent variable)

56
 Experimental Design
• An experimental design is a set of procedures
specifying
– the test units and how these units are to be divided
into homogeneous subsamples,
– what independent variables or treatments are to be
manipulated,
– what dependent variables are to be measured, and

– how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.

57
 Experiments
• Experiment
– A carefully controlled study where the researcher
manipulates a proposed cause and observes any
corresponding change in the proposed effect.
• Experimental variable
– Represents the proposed cause and is controlled by the
researcher by manipulating it.
• Manipulation
– The researcher alters the level of the variable in specific
increments.
• Test-market
– An experiment that is conducted within actual market
conditions. 58
 Validity in Experimentation
• Internal validity
– Manipulation of the independent variables or treatments
actually caused the observed effects on the dependent
variables.
– Control of extraneous variables is a necessary condition
for establishing internal validity.
• External validity
– Whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the
experiment can be generalized.
– To what populations, settings, times, independent
variables and dependent variables can the results be
projected?
59
 Extraneous Variables and Validity
• History refers to specific events that are external to
the experiment but occur at the same time as the
experiment.
• Maturation (MA) refers to changes in the test units
themselves that occur with the passage of time.
• Testing effects are caused by the process of
experimentation. Typically, these are the effects on
the experiment of taking a measure on the dependent
variable before and after the presentation of the
treatment.
• The main testing effect (MT) occurs when a prior
observation affects a latter observation.
60
 Extraneous Variables and Validity
• In the interactive testing effect (IT), a prior
measurement affects the test unit's response to the
independent variable.
• Instrumentation (I) refers to changes in the
measuring instrument, in the observers or in the scores
themselves.
• Statistical regression effects (SR) occur when test
units with extreme scores move closer to the average
score during the course of the experiment.
• Selection bias (SB) refers to the improper assignment
of test units to treatment conditions.
• Mortality (MO) refers to the loss of test units while
the experiment is in progress.
61
 Controlling Extraneous Variables
• Randomization refers to the random assignment of test
units to experimental groups by using random numbers.
Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to
experimental groups.
• Matching involves comparing test units on a set of key
background variables before assigning them to the
treatment conditions.
• Statistical control involves measuring the extraneous
variables and adjusting for their effects through
statistical analysis.
• Design control involves the use of experiments
designed to control specific extraneous variables.
62
 Classification of Experimental Designs
Experimental Designs

Pre-experimental True Quasi Statistical

Experimental Experimental

One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized

Study Control Group Blocks
Posttest: Only Latin Square
One Group Multiple
Control Group
Pretest-Posttest Time Series Factorial
Solomon Four- Design
Static Group Group

63
 Classification of Experimental Designs
• Pre-experimental designs do not employ
randomization procedures to control for extraneous
factors: the one-shot case study, the one-group pretest-
posttest design, and the static-group.

• In true experimental designs, the researcher can

randomly assign test units to experimental groups and
treatments to experimental groups: the pretest-posttest
control group design, the posttest-only control group
design, and the Solomon four-group design.

64
 Classification of Experimental Designs

• Quasi-experimental designs result when the researcher

is unable to achieve full manipulation of scheduling or
allocation of treatments to test units but can still apply
part of the apparatus of true experimentation: time series
and multiple time series designs.
•

• A statistical design is a series of basic experiments that

allows for statistical control and analysis of external
variables: randomized block design, Latin square design,
and factorial designs.

65
 The One-Shot Case Study
X 01

• A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X.

• A single measurement on the dependent variable is
taken (01).
• There is no random assignment of test units.
• The one-shot case study is more appropriate for
exploratory than for conclusive research.

66
 The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

01 X 02

• A group of test units is measured twice.

• There is no control group.
• The treatment effect is computed as
02 – 01.
• The validity of this conclusion is
questionable since extraneous variables are
largely uncontrolled.
67
 The Static Group Design
EG: X 01
CG: 02

• A two-group experimental design.

• The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the
treatment, and the control group (CG) is not.
• Measurements on both groups are made only after the
treatment.
• Test units are not assigned at random.
• The treatment effect would be measured as 01 - 02.

68
 True Experimental Designs: Posttest-Only
Control Group Design
EG : R X 01
CG : R 02

• The treatment effect is obtained by

TE = 01 - 02
• Except for pre-measurement, the
implementation of this design is very similar
to that of the pretest-posttest control group
design.
69
 True Experimental Designs:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
EG: R 01 X 02
CG: R 03 04
• Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the
control group.
• A pretreatment measure is taken on each group.
• The treatment effect (TE) is measured as:(02 - 01) - (04 - 03).
• Selection bias is eliminated by randomization.
• The other extraneous effects are controlled as follows:
02 – 01= TE + H + MA + MT + IT + I + SR + MO
04 – 03= H + MA + MT + I + SR + MO
= EV (Extraneous Variables)
• The experimental result is obtained by:
(02 - 01) - (04 - 03) = TE + IT
• Interactive testing effect is not controlled.

70
 The Solomon Four-Group Design
Experimental Group # 1 R O1 X O2
Control Group # 1 R O3 O4
Experimental Group # 2 R X O5
Control Group # 2 R O6
EG # 1: O2 – O1= E + U + I E = Treatment effect U =
CG # 1: O4 – O3= U Extraneous Variables

EG # 2: O5 – 0.5 (O1 – O3)= E + U I = Interactive testing

effect
CG # 2: O6- 0.5 (O1 – O3)= U
EG2 – EG1 = (E + U) – U = E (Treatment effect)
EG1 – EG2 = (E + U + I) – (E + U) = I (Interactive testing effect) 71
 Errors in Research Designs
Total Error

Random Non-sampling
Sampling Error Error

Response Non-response
Error Error

Researcher Interviewer Error Respondent

Error Error

Surrogate Information Error Respondent Selection Error Inability Error

Measurement Error Questioning Error Unwillingness Error
Population Definition Error Recording Error
Sampling Frame Error Cheating Error
Data Analysis Error 72
 Errors in Research Design
• Total error - variation between the true population
value of a variable and the observed value obtained
in the marketing research project (i.e. from the
sample).

• Random sampling error - variation between the

true population value and the true sample value;
statistical fluctuation due to chance variations in
elements selected for the sample

73
 Errors in Research Design
Non-sampling errors Types

• Non-response error – statistical variation between

the results of a survey in which the sample includes
only those who responded and a survey that would
include those who failed to respond.

• Response error – variation that occurs when (a)

those who respond answer questions in a way that
misrepresents the truth consciously (deliberate
falsification) or unconsciously (unconscious
misrepresentation), or (b) their answers are mis-
recorded or mis-analyzed.
74