STATISTICAL INTERVALS EDDIE SANTILLAN JR.

, ECE
INSTRUCTOR
TOPICS:

Confidence Intervals: Single Sample

Confidence Intervals: Multiple Samples
Prediction Intervals
Tolerance Intervals
INTRODUCTION
 Even the most efficient unbiased estimator is unlikely to
estimate the population parameter exactly. It is true that
estimation accuracy increases with large samples, but there is
still no reason we should expect a point estimate from a
given sample to be exactly equal to the population
parameter it is supposed to estimate.
 There are many situations in which it is preferable to
determine an interval within which we would expect to find
the value of the parameter. Such an interval is called an
interval estimate.
INTRODUCTION
Suppose that X1, X2, … , Xn is a random sample from a normal
distribution with unknown mean μ and known variance σ2. We
know that the sample mean 𝑋ത is normally distributed with mean
μ and variance σ2/n. We may standardize 𝑋ത by subtracting
the mean and dividing by the standard deviation, which results
in the variable
ത
𝑋−𝜇
Z=
𝜎/ 𝑛

The random variable Z has a standard normal distribution.

A confidence interval (CI) estimate for μ is an interval of the
form l ≤ μ ≤ u, where the endpoints l and u are computed from
the sample data. Because different samples will produce
different values of l and u, these end-points are values of
random variables L and U, respectively. Suppose that we can
determine values of L and U such that the following probability
statement is true:
P{L ≤ μ ≤ U} = 1 − α,
where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. There is a probability of 1 − α of selecting
a sample for which the CI will contain the true value of μ. Once
we have selected the sample, so that X1 = x1, X2 = x2, …, Xn =
xn, and computed l and u, the resulting confidence interval for
μ is
l≤μ≤u
The end-points or bounds l and u are called the lower- and upper-
confidence limits, respectively, and 1 − α is called the confidence
coefficient.
For example, a random sample of SAT verbal scores for
students in the entering freshman class might produce an
interval from 530 to 550, within which we expect to find
the true average of all SAT verbal scores for the freshman
class. The values of the endpoints, 530 and 550, will
depend on the computed sample mean 𝑥ҧ and the
sampling distribution of 𝑋.ത As the sample size increases,
we know that σ𝑋2ത = σ2/n decreases, and consequently our
estimate is likely to be closer to the parameter μ, resulting
in a shorter interval.
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
Confidence Interval on μ, σ2 Known
If 𝑥ҧ is the mean of a random sample of size n from a
population with known variance σ2, a 100(1 − α)%
confidence interval (CI) for μ is given by
𝛔 𝛔
𝐱ത – zα/2 < μ < 𝐱ത + zα/2 ,
𝐧 𝐧
where zα/2 is the z-value leaving an area of α/2 to the
right.
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1:
The average zinc concentration recovered from a sample of
measurements taken in 36 different locations in a river is found
to be 2.6 grams per milliliter. Find the 95% and 99%
confidence intervals for the mean zinc concentration in the river.
Assume that the population standard deviation is 0.3 gram per
milliliter.
Answer:
95%: 2.502 < μ < 2.698
99%: 2.47 < μ < 2.73
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
Sample Size for Specified Error on the Mean, Variance
Known
If 𝑥ҧ is used as an estimate of μ, we can be 100(1 − α)%
confident that the error, e, will not exceed
𝜎
e ≤ zα/2 .
𝑛

If 𝑥ҧ is used as an estimate of μ, we can be 100(1 − α)%

confident that the error will not exceed a specified amount
e when the sample size is
𝑧𝛼/2 𝜎 2
n= ( ).
𝑒
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
EXAMPLE 2:
How large a sample is required if we want to be 95%
confident that our estimate of μ in Example 1 is off by less than
0.05? (139)
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
One-Sided Confidence Bounds on μ, σ2 Known
If 𝑋ത is the mean of a random sample of size n from a
population with variance σ2, the one-sided 100(1 − α)%
confidence bounds for μ are given by
upper one-sided bound: xത + zασ/ n;
lower one-sided bound: xത − zασ/ n.
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
EXAMPLE 3:
In a psychological testing experiment, 25 subjects are
selected randomly and their reaction time, in seconds, to a
particular stimulus is measured. Past experience suggests
that the variance in reaction times to these types of stimuli
is 4 sec2 and that the distribution of reaction times is
approximately normal. The average time for the subjects
is 6.2 seconds. Give an upper 95% bound for the mean
reaction time. (6.858 seconds)
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
t – Distribution
Let X1, X2, … , Xn be a random sample from a normal distribution with
unknown mean μ and unknown variance σ2. The random variable
ത
𝑋−𝜇
T=
𝑆/ 𝑛

has a t distribution with n - 1 degrees of freedom

CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
Confidence Interval on μ, σ2 Unknown
If xത and s are the mean and standard deviation of a
random sample from a normal population with unknown
variance σ2, a 100(1−α)% confidence interval for μ is
𝒔 𝒔
𝐱ത − tα/2 < μ < 𝐱ത + tα/2 ,
𝒏 𝒏
where tα/2 is the t-value with v = n − 1 degrees of
freedom, leaving an area of α/2 to the right.
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: SINGLE SAMPLE
EXAMPLE 4:
The contents of seven similar containers of sulfuric acid are 9.8, 10.2,
10.4, 9.8, 10.0, 10.2, and 9.6 liters. Find a 95% confidence interval
for the mean contents of all such containers, assuming an
approximately normal distribution. (9.74 < μ < 10.26)
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: MULTIPLE
SAMPLES
Often statisticians recommend that even when normality cannot
be assumed, σ is unknown, and n ≥ 30, s can replace σ and the
confidence interval
𝑠
𝑥ҧ ± zα/2
𝑛

may be used. This is often referred to as a large-sample

confidence interval. The justification lies only in the presumption
that with a sample as large as 30 and the population
distribution not too skewed, s will be very close to the true σ
and thus the Central Limit Theorem prevails. It should be
emphasized that this is only an approximation and the quality
of the result becomes better as the sample size
grows larger.
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS: MULTIPLE
SAMPLES
EXAMPLE 5:
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) mathematics scores of a
random sample of 500 high school seniors in the state of
Texas are collected, and the sample mean and standard
deviation are found to be 501 and 112, respectively. Find
a 99% confidence interval on the mean SAT mathematics
score for seniors in the state of Texas. (488.1 < μ < 513.9)
PREDICTION INTERVALS
Sometimes, other than the population mean, the experimenter
may also be interested in predicting the possible value of a
future observation. For instance, in quality control, the
experimenter may need to use the observed data to predict a
new observation. A process that produces a metal part may be
evaluated on the basis of whether the part meets specifications
on tensile strength. On certain occasions, a customer may be
interested in purchasing a single part. In this case, a confidence
interval on the mean tensile strength does not capture the
required information. The customer requires a statement
regarding the uncertainty of a single observation. This type of
requirement is nicely fulfilled by the construction of a prediction
interval.
PREDICTION INTERVALS
Prediction Interval of a Future Observation, σ2 Known
For a normal distribution of measurements with unknown
mean μ and known variance σ2, a 100(1 − α)%
prediction interval of a future observation x0 is
xത − zα/2σ 1 + 1/n < x0 < xത + zα/2σ 1 + 1/n,
where zα/2 is the z-value leaving an area of α/2 to the
right.
PREDICTION INTERVALS
EXAMPLE 6:
Due to the decrease in interest rates, the First Citizens
Bank received a lot of mortgage applications. A recent
sample of 50 mortgage loans resulted in an average loan
amount of $257,300. Assume a population standard
deviation of $25,000. For the next customer who fills out
a mortgage application, find a 95% prediction interval
for the loan amount. ($207,812.43 < xo < $306,787.57)
PREDICTION INTERVALS
Prediction Interval of a Future Observation, σ2
Unknown
For a normal distribution of measurements with unknown
mean μ and unknown variance σ2, a 100(1 − α)%
prediction interval of a future observation x0 is
ഥ − tα/2 s 1 + 1/n < x0 < 𝒙
𝒙 ഥ + tα/2 s 1 + 1/n,
where tα/2 is the t-value with v = n − 1 degrees of
freedom, leaving an area of α/2 to the right.
PREDICTION INTERVALS
EXAMPLE 7:
A meat inspector has randomly selected 30 packs of 95%
lean beef. The sample resulted in a mean of 96.2% with a
sample standard deviation of 0.8%. Find a 99%
prediction interval for the leanness of a new pack. Assume
normality. (93.96, 98.44)
TOLERANCE INTERVALS
 If process specifications are important (e.g.,
manufacturing), the manager of the process is concerned
about long-range performance, not the next observation.
One must attempt to determine bounds that, in some
probabilistic sense, “cover” values in the population (i.e., the
measured values of the dimension).
 One method of establishing the desired bounds is to
determine a confidence interval on a fixed proportion of the
measurements. This is best motivated by visualizing a
situation in which we are doing random sampling from a
normal distribution with known mean μ and variance σ2.
TOLERANCE INTERVALS
Clearly, a bound that covers the middle 95% of the
population of observations is
μ ± 1.96σ.
This is called a tolerance interval, and indeed its
coverage of 95% of measured observations is exact.
However, in practice, μ and σ are seldom known; thus, the
user must apply
xത ± ks.
TOLERANCE INTERVALS
Tolerance Limits
For a normal distribution of measurements with unknown
mean μ and unknown standard deviation σ, tolerance
limits are given by
xത ± ks,
where k is determined such that one can assert with 100(1
− γ)% confidence that the given limits contain at least the
proportion 1 − α of the measurements.
TOLERANCE INTERVALS
EXAMPLE 8:
A meat inspector has randomly selected 30 packs of 95% lean beef.
The sample resulted in a mean of 96.2% with a sample standard
deviation of 0.8%. Find a tolerance interval that gives two-sided 95%
bounds on 90% of the distribution of packages of 95% lean beef.
Assume the data came from an approximately normal distribution.
TOLERANCE INTERVALS
Distinction among Confidence Intervals, Prediction Intervals,
and Tolerance Intervals
 In the case of confidence intervals, one is attentive only to the
population mean.
 The tolerance limit interpretation is somewhat related to the
confidence interval but if specification is required, then
tolerance interval is important than confidence interval.
 Prediction intervals are applicable when it is important to
determine a bound on a single value. The mean is not the issue
here, nor is the location of the majority of the population.
Rather, the location of a single new observation is required
ASSIGNMENT:
1. ASTM Standard E23 defines standard test methods for notched bar
impact testing of metallic materials. The Charpy V-notch (CVN)
technique measures impact energy and is often used to determine
whether or not a material experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition
with decreasing temperature. Ten measurements of impact energy (J)
on specimens of A238 steel cut at 60ºC are as follows: 64.1, 64.7,
64.5, 64.6, 64.5, 64.3, 64.6, 64.8, 64.2, and 64.3. Assume that
impact energy is normally distributed with σ = 1J. Find a 95% CI for
μ, the mean impact energy.
(63.84 ≤μ≤ 65.08)
ASSIGNMENT:
2. Consider the CVN test described in Assignment 1, and suppose that
we wanted to determine how many specimens must be tested to
ensure that the 95% CI on μ for A238 steel cut at 60°C has a length
of at most 1.0 J. Since the bound on error in estimation e is one-half of
the length of the CI, to determine sample size n. (16)
ASSIGNMENT:
3. The same data for impact testing from Assignment1 are used
to construct a lower, one-sided 95% confidence interval for
the mean impact energy. Find the lower one-sided interval. (63.9 ≤
𝜇)
ASSIGNMENT:
4. An article in the journal Materials Engineering (1989, Vol. II,
No. 4, pp. 275–281) describes the results of tensile adhesion
tests on 22 U-700 alloy specimens. The load at specimen
failure is as follows (in megapascals):
19.8 10.1 14.9 7.5 15.4 15.4
15.4 18.5 7.9 12.7 11.9 11.4
11.4 14.1 17.6 16.7 15.8
19.5 8.8 13.6 11.9 11.4
(a) Determine the sample mean and the sample standard deviation
(b) Find the CI if the population is normally distributed.
ASSIGNMENT:
5. A machine produces metal pieces that are cylindrical in shape.
A sample of these pieces is taken and the diameters are found to be
1.01, 0.97, 1.03, 1.04, 0.99, 0.98, 0.99, 1.01, and 1.03 centimeters.
Use these data to calculate three interval types and draw
interpretations that illustrate the distinction between them in the
context of the system. For all computations, assume an approximately
normal distribution. The sample mean and standard deviation for the
given data are 𝑥ҧ = 1.0056 and s = 0.0246.
(a) Find a 99% confidence interval on the mean diameter.
(b) Compute a 99% prediction interval on a measured diameter of a
single metal piece taken from the machine.
(c) Find the 99% tolerance limits that will contain 95% of the metal
pieces produced by this machine.