INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

CHAPTER 17
PROCESS
 different operations performed in an industrial
machine to manufacture a product

PROCESS CONTROL OPERATIONS

 performed automatically by either open-loop or
closed loop systems
OPEN-LOOP
 a system where the process is controlled only by
setpoint commands, without feedback measurement
signal
 used in applications where simple processes are
performed
 timing functions are often the key factors used to
control the operation
EXAMPLES OF OPEN-LOOP PROCESS
MACHINE:
1. Cafeteria dishwashers
2. Commercial laundry machines
3. Printed circuit board burn-in chambers

CONTROLLER DEVICES
1. Relay ladder logic hardware
2. Sequential drum controllers
3. Programmable controllers
4. Computers
INPUT OUTPUT
TIMER PROCESS
Closed loop
 More effective than open-loop systems
 Self-regulating with the addition of a feedback loop
 INPUT

SET POINT OUTPUT

CONTROLLER PROCESS

SENSOR
Process Control
 Its primary objective is to cause a controlled variable
to remain at a constant value at or near some desired
setpoint

Variable
 an element that varies when an influence to which it is
exposed causes it to change
Change can happen when only one of the
following conditions occur:

 A disturbance appears
 Load demands vary
 Setpoints are adjusted

When a change occurs, the objective of the process-control system is

to return the controlled variable to the setpoint as quickly as possible.
SINGLE-VARIABLE CONTROL LOOP
Single- variable control loop
Several process variables are typically controlled simultaneously in a
machine that produces a product in the process industry. Usually, only
one individual feedback loop is required to control each variable.
Referred to as single-variable control loop, it consists of the following
elements:

• Measuring device
• Transducer/ Transmitter These elements are also referred to
as “INSTRUMENTATION DEVICES”.
• Controller
• Final Control Element
These elements are also referred to
as “INSTRUMENTATION DEVICES”.

When 1 step change takes place, there is not an

immediate response by the control loop. The
correcting action takes time. A measure of the
loop's corrective action, as a function of time to
the deviation, is referred to as dynamic
response. There are several factors tbat
conuibute to this delay.
Response Time of Instruments
 All instruments have a time lag. This is the duration from the line a
change is received at its input until the instrument produces an output
response. Time lag also includes the duration of a signal passing from
one instrument to the next. The following six factors contribute 10 the
time delay caused by instruments:
• Response time of a sensor
• Time lag of the transducer
• The distance the feedback must travel from the
transducer to the controller
• The time required for the controller to the final control
element
• The time lag of the final control element
PURE LAG OF THE CONTROLLED VARIABLE
 The controlled variable itself may contribute to the reaction
lime delay of the loop. For example. when a step change
occur, the loop reacts by causing the manipulated variable
to be altered. The result is that the energy applied by the
actuator to the controlled variable either increases or
decreases, However, due to the static inertia of the material
from which the controlled variable is made, it opposes being
changed and creates a delay. Eventually' energy overcomes
resistance and causes the process to reach its desired state.
The delayed reaction is referred to as pure lag.
PURE LAG OF THE CONTROLLED
VARIABLE
 One factor that affects the pure lag time is the capacity
(physical size) of the controlled variable. If the controlled
variable has very little mass, the process will react instantly to
a step change. A second factor that can affect the pure lag
time is the physical properties of the controlled variable. For
example, the temperature of a solvent will change more
rapidly than an equal quantity of pure water when exposed
10 an equivalent thermal energy change. Another factor that
can affect pure lag is the chemical properties of the
controlled variable. For example, the hardness of water will
affect the reaction rate when PH adjustments are made.
PURE LAG OF THE CONTROLLED
VARIABLE
One Common method used to analyze
thc pure lag of a controlled variable is to
introduce
a step change and observe the results.
The storage tank in Fisure 17-3 (a) is used
to describe
such a response lest, and the Braph in
Figure 17-3 (b) illustrates the behavior.
 PURE LAG OF THE CONTROLLED
VARIABLE
 The tank is being supplied with a liquid al a given rate, while liquid flows out
through a drain line. The inflow is the manipulated variable, and the
outflow is the controlled variable. The rate of outflow is determined by the
amount of head pressure influenced by the depth of the water. Suppose
the set point change causes the rate of inflow to increase abruptly, as
shown at time T1 on the graph. The volume of outflow does not
immediately increase by the same amount as the new rate of inflow.
Instead it gradually increases as a result of the head

FIGURE AT THE NEXT SLIDE

DEAD TIME
 Another factor that contributes to time lag is dead time. This is
the elapsed time between the instant deviation of the controlled
variable occurs and the instant corrective action begin, A
process in which the density of a fluid is regulated can be used
to illustrate dead time.
 DEAD TIME
 Delays are inherent to each of these factors and
cannot be avoided. However, the reaction time can be
substantially reduced by maximizing the operation of an
instrument in the control loop in two ways:
• 1.Select a controller with operational features that
provide the kind of control action needed for a
particular process.
• 2. Properly tune the controller to optimize the
regulation of the process.
 Selecting a Controller
Controller are designed to operate by using different
control modes. Each of this mode has a specific characteristics that
provide different types of control actions

• On-Off
• Proportional
• Integral
• Derivative

On – Off Control
The type of control mode often used for slow acting
operations is the one that provides on-off action. This kind of action
control is a final control that
has only two conditions , fully on or fully off. The controller cannot
move the final
control to any position between two extremes. One example of this
control system is a refrigerator unit.
When the controller increases above the set point , the controller turns a compressor
fully on. As the temperature lowers below the set point , the compressor is turned off

Another type of On-Off System is the tank that stores a liquid it contains two
capacitance probe sensors a flow valve and a controller. One sensor detects the
high limit and the other detects the low limit . When the controller detects a signal
change from the sensor, it opens the valve . Since the inlet flow rate is greater than
the outlet its signal changes and causes the valve to close.
 On- Off Controllers are also used in application that limit the condition of a
controlled variable.One example is a safety system that prevents a steam
boiler from exploding by not allowing the temperature rise above a certain
level. The controller is programmed to close a fuel valve and activate an
alarm if the high limit temperature is reached . The Alarm stay on and the
and the boiler remains shutdown until the controller is manually reset.
Case Study 1 : On-off Control
 To produce the product, raw material are made one batch at a
time. Bulk materials and liquids are combined in a large tank. A
heat jacket that surrounds the tank is fed with a steam because
for proper blending to occur the temperature of the ingredients
must be maintained at 80 degrees. If some reasons the
temperature rise above 85 degrees, one of the ingredient would
become overactive and the product would be out of tolerance.
On the other hand, if the batch is allowed to cool below 75
degrees, blending will be incomplete and the product will have
to be reprocessed or discarded.
 To regulate the flow of steam to the jacket, an On-Off Controller
is used to open a or close the valve. The desired operating
temperature , or set point adjustment, establishes the
temperature at which the controller causes the steam valve to
open or close. The set point of 80 degrees is adjusted above by
a knob, and the settings is displayed by green.
ADVANCED CONTROL TECHNIQUES
CASCADE CONTROL  The inner loop, which monitors the manipulated
variable (steam pressure) is referred to as
secondary feedback loop.

 The outer loop, which monitors the controlled

variable (liquid temperature) is referred to as the
primary feedback loop.

 The primary controller used in this loop compares

the setpoint temperature of the liquid to its actual
temperature supplied by the thermal sensor.

 The secondary controller has the capability of

receiving its setpoint from an externally applied
source, it is referred as a remote controller.

 The secondary control loop reacts quickly to

changes in steam pressure. The secondary loop
causes a faster final control element reaction to
changes in its variable than when variances occur
in the primary loop.
FEED-FORWARD CONTROL

 Feedback systems work on the principle that the

process must deviate from setpoint before control
action is applied. A liquid passes through the tubes
section of a heat exchanger, which raises its
temperature to a required level before it is
discharged. The outflow, which is the controlled
variable, is fed to the mixing tank for further
processing.

 By measuring the variable that enters a process and

by taking corrective action if it is affected by
disturbance, a deviation of the cotrolled variable
from the setpoint is reduced or eliminated. The
operation of feed-forward control is based on this
principle.
FEED-FORWARD CONTROL
 This diagram shows how the feedback heat
exchanger system can be modified to perform
feed-forward control. Under stable conditions,
the system is tuned so that, as the fluid passes
through the exchanger, its temperature is raised
from 80 to 100 degrees. To maintain this
operation, the temperature of the incoming fluid
must be at 80 degrees, and the flow rate must
be precisely controlled.

 This system uses two sensors. One measures the

temperature of the incoming liquid, and the
other measures the flow rate. Based on inputs
from the two sensors, the feed-forward controller
calculates how much steam is required to
maintain the controlled variable at setpoint.
 Feedback systems determine a correction that
needs to be made after the controlled variable
deviates from setpoint; feed-forward systems
detect a disturbance before the controlled
variable can deviate from the setpoint.

 Feed-forward control is used when no variation

from setpoint can be tolerated in a process or
when a system is very slow in responding to
corrective action. Due to the inaccurancy of feed-
forward control in some situations, it is seldom used
in feedback control.
RATIO CONTROL

 A wide range of industries use a mixing operation

to blend two or more ingredients together to form
an end product. To ensure that a quality product
is produced, the quantity of each ingredient must
be very precise. One method used for mixing
applications is to proportionally control the flow of
an ingredient based on the amount of flow of
another ingredient.

 With ratio control, the flow of one material is

uncontrolled. This flow rate is commonly
designated wild flow. The rate of the wild flow
ingredients is measured and used as a reference
to set the flow rate of the other material. This flow
rate is referred to as controlled flow.
ADAPTIVE CONTROL

 Used to accomodate non-linear process. An adaptive

controller uses a combination of software programming
and microelectronics to compensate non-linear
situations.
PROCESS CONTROL METHODS
 CONTINUOUS CONTROL

 ON-OFF CONTROL IS SUITED TO SITUATIONS ON WHICH IT IS ONLY

NECESSARY TO KEEP A PROCESS VARIABLE BETWEEN TWO LIMITS.

 THE CONTROLLED VARIABLE CAN BE MAINTAINED ONLY IF THE FINAL

CONTROL ELEMENT IS VARIED CONTINUOUSLY OVER THE ENTIRE
RANGE OF ITS OUTPUT.

 SYSTEMS THAT PROVIDE THIS FUNCTIONS USE ANY ONE, OR A

COMBINATION, OF PROPORTIONAL, INTEGRAL,AND DERIVATIVE
CONTROL ACTIONS.
PROPORTIONAL MODE

 A PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER PRODUCES AN OUTPUT SIGNAL WITH

A MAGNITUDE THAT IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE SIZE OF THE ERROR
SIGNAL (E) IT IS CORRECTING.

 E = MEASURED VALUE – SETPOINT (OR DESIRED VALUE)

 A SMALL ERROR WILL CAUSE THE OUTPUT TO CHANGE BY A SMALL

AMOUNT.
TIME PROPORTIONING

TIME PROPORTIONING
IS A METHOD IN WHICH
THE OUTPUT AT THE
CONTROLLER IS
CONTINUALLY
SWITCHED FULLY ON
AND FULLY OFF.
AMPLITUDE PROPORTIONAL

AMPLITUDE PROPORTIONAL METHOD

IS THE MOST COMMON TECHNIQUE
USED TO PRODUCE A PROPORTIONAL
SIGNAL.
 INTEGRAL MODE

 AS THE LEVEL DROPS, THE FLOAT

MECHANISM CAUSES THE OPENING OF
THE INFLOW VALVE TO INCREASE. WHEN
THE INFLOW EQUALS THE NEW OUTFLOW
VALVE, THE SYSTEM STABILIZES. HOWEVER,
THE SYSTEM IS BELOW SETPOINT AS
SHOWN IN THE DIAGRAM. THIS ERROR, A
CONSTANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
SETPOINT (SP) AND THE CONTROLLED
VARIABLE (CV), IS CALLED OFFSET.

 TO ELIMINATE OFFSET, AN INTEGRAL

FUNCTION IS ADDED WITH THE
PROPORTIONAL MODE TO THE
DERIVATIVE MODE
 INSTEAD OF INCREASING
THE PROPORTIONAL GAIN
TO REDUCE THE ERROR
SIGNAL, THE DERIVATIVE
MODE OF THE CONTROLLER
IS USED.
END