ME-131 Thermodynamics - I

BS Mechanical Engineering

Course Instructor: Hussain Ahmed Tariq

Email Id: [email protected]
Office Address: Mechanics of Materials Lab, WEC
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Wah Engineering College
University of Wah
Rules and Grading Policy
 Attendance :
 Student arriving after ten minutes from the starting
time of class will be marked absent.
 Class Attendance is Compulsory. The students having
their attendance less than 80% will not be allowed to
appear in the exam and will be awarded “F” grade.
 Grades will be made according to following
criteria
Assignments 7.5%
Quizzes 7.5%
Project 7.5%
Mid Term Exam 18.75%
End Term Exam 33.75%
Lab 25%
 Chapter#1

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC

CONCEPTS
Books
• Thermodynamics; An Engineering Approach (8th
Edition) by Younus A. Cengel
• Applied Thermodynamics for Engineers &
Technologists by T.D. Eastop & McConkey, Longman
• Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics by
M J. Moran, H N. Shapiro
What is Thermodynamics
• THERMODYNAMICS stems from 2 Greek words
• THERME (heat) and DYNAMICS (power)
• means to convert heat into power

Temperature is measure of hotness or coldness

 Conservation of energy
• Energy can change from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be
created or destroyed.
• Example:
• A rock falling off a cliff, for example, picks up speed as a result of
its potential energy being converted to kinetic energy.
• A person who has a greater energy input (food)
than energy output (exercise) will gain weight
(store energy in the form of fat), and a person
who has a smaller energy input than output will
lose weight. The change in the energy content of
a body or any other system is equal to the
difference between the energy input and the
energy output, and the energy balance is
expressed as
Ein – Eout = ΔE
 Laws of Thermodynamics

Zeroth law
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two
thermodynamic systems each are in thermal equilibrium with a
third one, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

1st law
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can change from
one form to another
ΔQ=ΔU+ ΔW
2nd law
This law states that there is a definite limit to the amount of
mechanical energy, which can be obtained from a given
quantity of heat energy.
• According to Kalvin-Planck, “It is impossible to construct an
engine working on a cyclic process, whose sole purpose is to
convert heat energy in to work”
• According to Claussius, heat cannot flow from low
temperature to high temperature.
• For example: a cup of hot coffee left on table eventually
cools, but a cool cup in same room never gets hot by itself.

3rd law
• At absolute zero temperature, the entropy of a perfectly
crystalline substance is zero
Some Application areas of
Thermodynamics
• Aircraft and spacecraft
• Refrigerators
• Boats
• Human Body
• Power Plants
• Automotive
• Wind Turbines etc.
Dimensions and Units
• Primary or fundamental dimensions: mass, length,
time, temperature
• Secondary or derived dimensions: velocity, energy
and volume are expressed in terms of primary
dimensions

SI units prefixes e.g. 200mL, 1kg, 1kΩ

SI and English Units
• SI Units: mass=kg, length=m, second=s, energy=kJ
• English Units: mass=lbm, length=ft, second= s,
energy=BTU
1lbm=0.45359kg
1ft=0.3048m

1Btu (English unit)= the energy required to raise the

temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68°F by 1°F.
1Cal (metric system)= the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C
1 cal =4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
Heat transfer rate= J/s or W
• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.
• The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary. Note that the boundary is
the contact surface shared by both the system and the
surroundings.

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on

whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for
study.
Closed System (Control mass)
• A closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no
mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or
leave a closed system,
• But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the
boundary;
• The volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed.
• Example:
• Consider the piston-cylinder device.
• What happens to the enclosed gas when it is heated.
• We are focusing our attention on the gas, it is our system.
• The inner surfaces of the piston and the cylinder form the
boundary, and since no mass is crossing this boundary, it is a
closed system.
• Energy may cross the boundary, and part of the boundary (the
inner surface of the piston, in this case) may move.
• Everything outside the gas, including the piston and the cylinder,
is the surroundings.
Open System (Control Volume)
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control
volume.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a
compressor, car radiator, turbine, or nozzle.
• The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface,
and they can be real or imaginary.
• In the case of a nozzle, the inner surface of the nozzle forms the
real part of the boundary, and the entrance and exit areas form
the imaginary part, since there are no physical surfaces there
• A control volume can be fixed in size and shape, as in the case of
a nozzle, or it may involve a moving boundary.
• Most control volumes, however, have fixed boundaries and thus
do not involve any moving boundaries.
• A control volume can also involve heat and work interactions just
as a closed system, in addition to mass interaction.
• Example: As an example of an open system, consider the water
heater. Let us say that we would like to determine how much heat
we must transfer to the water in the tank in order to supply a
steady stream of hot water. Since hot water will leave the tank
and be replaced by cold water, it is not convenient to choose a
fixed mass as our system for the analysis. Instead, we can
concentrate our attention on the volume formed by the interior
surfaces of the tank and consider the hot and cold water streams
as mass leaving and entering the control volume. The interior
surfaces of the tank form the control surface for this case, and
mass is crossing the control surface at two locations.
Isolated System
• Special case, energy and mass are not allowed to cross the
boundary
Properties of a System
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
• Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V,
and mass m.
• Less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus
of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity and
even velocity and elevation.
• Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass
of a system, such as temperature, pressure and density
• Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the
size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume and total
momentum are some examples of extensive properties

• Specific Properties: Extensive properties per

unit mass are called specific properties.
• Some examples of specific properties are
specific volume (v = V/m) and specific total
energy (e = E/m)

Note: The reciprocal of density is the specific

volume
• The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and
inversely proportional to temperature.
• Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially
incompressible substances, and the variation of their density with
pressure is usually negligible.
• At 20°C, the density of water changes from 998 kg/m3 at 1 atm to
1003 kg/m3 at 100 atm, a change of just 0.5%.
• The density of liquids and solids depends more strongly on
temperature than it does on pressure.
• At 1 atm, the density of water changes from 998 kg/m3 at 20°C to
975 kg/m3 at 75°C, a change of 2.3%.
• Specific gravity or relative density: The ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of some standard substance at a
specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which 𝜌𝐻2𝑂 =
1000 kg/m3).

Note that substances with specific gravities less than 1 are lighter than
water, and thus they would float on water.
• The specific weight (also known as the unit weight)
is the weight per unit volume of a material
State
• Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all
the properties can be measured or calculated throughout the
entire system, which gives us a set of properties that completely
describes the condition, or the state, of the system.
• At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
• If the value of even one property changes, the state will change to
a different one.

In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving

forces) within the system.
Equilibrium
• A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system. That is, the system involves no
temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow.

• Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system

is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure
at any point of the system with time
• If a system involves two phases, it is in phase equilibrium
when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level
and stays there.
• A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical
composition does not change with time, that is, no chemical
reactions occur.
Processes
• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state
to another is called a process.
• A series of states through which a system passes during a process
is called the path of the process.
• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system
remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it
is called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium, process.
• A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow
process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that
properties in one part of the system do not change any faster
than those at other parts.
Example
• When a gas in a piston-cylinder device is compressed suddenly,
the molecules near the face of the piston will not have enough
time to escape and they will have to pile up in a small region in
front of the piston, thus creating a high-pressure region there.
Because of this pressure difference, the system can no longer be
said to be in equilibrium, and this makes the entire process non
quasi-equilibrium.
• However, if the piston is moved slowly, the molecules will have
sufficient time to redistribute and there will not be a molecule
pileup in front of the piston. As a result, the pressure inside the
cylinder will always be nearly uniform and will rise at the same
rate at all locations. Since equilibrium is maintained at all times,
this is a quasi-equilibrium process.
• An isothermal process is a process during which the temperature
T remains constant
• An isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P
remains constant
• An isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which the
specific volume v remains constant.
Cycle
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial
state at the end of the process.
• Steady implies no change with time.
• During a steady-flow process, fluid properties within the control
volume may change with position but not with time.

The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.

The term uniform implies no change with location over a
specified region.
Temperature scale
• Celsius scale,
• Fahrenheit scale
• Kelvin scale
• Rankine scale
Pressure
Pressure measurement devices
Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device
called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as the barometric
pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure can be measured by
inverting a mercury-filled tube into a mercury
container that is open to the atmosphere.
• The pressure at point B is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at point
C can be taken to be zero since there is only
mercury vapor above point C and the pressure is
very low relative to Patm and can be neglected.
Patm=ρgh
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is
defined as the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in
height at 0°C (ρ(Hg)=13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational
acceleration (g=9.807 m/s2). The unit mmHg is also called the torr. 1
torr = 133.3 Pa.
• If water instead of mercury were used to measure the standard
atmospheric pressure, a water column of about 10.3m would be
needed.
• The length or the cross-sectional area of the tube has no effect on the
height of the fluid column of a barometer, provided that the tube
diameter is large enough to avoid surface tension (capillary) effects.
P = P +ρgh or P = ρgh
atm gage
Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure
differences. A manometer consists of a glass or plastic U-tube
containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol,
or oil.
Differential manometer
Assignment#1
Explain the following Pressure Measurement Devices (CLO-1, PLO-1,
C-2)
• Bourdon Tube
• Pressure Transducers
• Strain-gage pressure Transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducers
• Deadweight Tester