Multiple Access

Protocols
Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

Upper sublayer – responsible for data link control

•Called LLC – for flow and error control
Lower sublayer - responsible for resolving access the shared media
•Called MAC – for multiple acceess resolution
Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter
I) RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL
In random access or contention methods, no station is
superior to another station and none is assigned the
control over another. No station permits, or does not
permit, another station to send. At each instance, a
station that has data to send uses a procedure defined
by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to
send. The decision depends on the state of the medium
(idle or busy).
Topics discussed in this section:
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
 1.
 The ALOHA protocol was developed at the
ALOHA:
university of Hawaii in the early 1970’s.ALOHA
was developed for packet radio networks.
However it is applicable to any shared
transmission medium. It is obvious that there are
potential collision in arrangement. The medium is
shared between the stations. When a stations
sends a data another station may attempt to do so
at the same time. The data from the two stations
collide and become garbled.
 Pure ALOHA
 The original ALOHA protocol is called pure
ALOHA. The idea is that each station sends a
frame whenever it has a frame to send however
since there is only one channel to share there is
the possibility of collision between frames
from different stations .
 Frames in a pure ALOHA network

Pure ALOHA:
1. Each station sends a frame whenever is has a frame to send
2. One channel to share, possibility of collision between frames from different stations
 There are four stations that contend with one
another for access to shared channel.
 The above figure that each station sends two
frames there are a total of eight frames on the
shared medium . Some of these frames are in
contention for the shared channel.
 The pure Aloha protocol relies on ack from the
receiver when a user sends a frame it expects the
receiver to send an ack.If the ack does not arrive
after a time out period the station assume that the
frame has been destroyed and resends the frame.
 Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the
same time there will be a collision and both will be
garbled. If the first bit of new frame overlaps with just
the last bit of a frame almost finished both frames will
be totally destroyed and both will have to retransmitted
later.
 If all users try to resend their frames after the time-out
the frames will collide again. Pure ALOHA dictate that
when the time-out period passes each user waits a
random amount of time before resending its frame. The
randomness will help to avoid more collision.This time
is called as back-off time(tb)
Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol
The procedure for pure aloha
 The time out period is equal to the maximum
possible round trip propagation delay which is
twice the amount of time required to send a
frame between the two most widely separated
station (2* Tp)
 Let all the packets have the same length and
each require one time unit for transmission (tp)
consider any user to send packet A at time t0
and t0+tp the end of packet B will collide with
the beginning of packets A since in pure
ALOHA packets a station does not listen to the
channel before transmitting its has no way of
knowing that above frame was already under
way.
2.CSMA(Carrier Sense Multiple Access )
 CSMA requires that each station first listen to
the medium before sending.
 CSMA is based on the principle “sense before
transmit” or listen before talk.
 CSMA can reduce the possibility of collison
but it cannot eliminate it .
 A space and time model of a CSMA network
stations are connected to a shared channel.
Space/time model of the collision in CSMA

CSMA – each station first listen to the medium before sending

Principle : “sense before transmit” or “listen before talk”
 The possibility of collision still exists because
of propagation delay when a station sends
frame it still takes time for the first bit to reach
every station and for every station to sense it.
 At time t1 station B sense the medium and
finds it idle , so it sends a frame at time t2
(t2>t1) station C sense the medium and finds it
idle because at this time the first bits from
station B have not reached C. Station C also
sends a frame . The two signals collide and
both frames are destroyed .
 Vulnerable Time:
 The Vulnerable time for CSMA is the
propagation time Tp. This is the time needed for
a signal to propagate from one end of the
medium to the other. When a station sends a
frame and any other station tries to send a frame
during this time a collision will result . But if the
first bit of the frame reaches the end of the
medium every station will already have heard
the bit and will refrain from sending.
Vulnerable time in CSMA
Behavior of three persistence methods

1-Persistent-after station
finds the line idle, send
its frame

Nonpersistent-senses the
line; idle: sends
immediately; not idle:
waits random amount of
time and senses again

p-Persistent-the channel
has time slots with
duration equal to or
greater than max
propagation time
Flow diagram for three persistence methods
 3.CSMA/CD:
 CSMA/CD is the most commonly used protocol for
LANs CSMA/CD specification were developed jointly
by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel and
Xerox . This network is called as Ethernet The IEEE
802.3 CSMA/CD standard for LAN is based on Ethernet
specification.
 The basic protocol is that a station is sending with a
message to send must monitor the channel to see if any
other station is sending if another station is sending the
second station must wait, until the sending has finished.
Then it may send its message immediately. The term
“carrier sense “ indicates this “ listening before
transmitting “ behaviour
 If two or more stations have messages to send
at the same time and they are separated by
significant distance on the bus/channel each
may begin transmitting at roughly the same
time without
Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD- Augments CSMA algorithm to handle collision

 The above diagram of CSMA/CD
 The CSMA/CD at the first bits transmitted by the two station
involved in the collision.
 And the each station continues to send bits in the frame until it
detect the collision. At time t1 station A has executed its
persistence's procedure and starts sending the bits of its frame .At
time t2 station has C has not yet sensed the first bit send by A .
Station C executes its persistence's procedure and starts sending the
bits in tis frame which propagate both to the left and to the right.
The collision occurs sometimes after time t2 Station detects a
collision at time t3 when it receives the first bit of A’s frame.
Station C immediately aborts transmission . Station A detects
collision at time t4 when it receives the first bit of C ‘ frame it also
immediately aborts transmission. The duration A transmits for t4-
t1
 C transmits for the abortion t3-t2 .
 Minimum Frame size:
 Csma/cd a restriction on the frame size before
sending the last bit of the frame the sending
station must detect a collision if any and abort
the transmission.
 The frame transmission time Tfr must be at
least two times the maximum propagations
time Tp.
Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD
Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

Zero level–channel is idle

Normal level–successfully captured channel and sending frame
Abnormal level-collision and energy twice the normal level
 4. CSMA/CA:
 The CSMA/CA completely to avoid the
collision in the shared medium.
 The collision are avoided through the use
of CSMA/CA’s three strategies
 1) Inter frame space
 2) Contention Window
 3) Acknowledgements.
Timing in CSMA/CA

IFS- In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame.

Contention window- In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy,

it does not restart the timer of the contention window;
it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.

Acknowledgment- Positive acknowledgment and time out timer guarantee receiver has
received the frame
 Inter-frame space: Collision are avoided by
deferring transmission even if the channel is found
idle.
 When an idle channel is found the station does not
send immediately. It waits for a period of time
called the inter-frame space.
 In csma/cd the ifs can also be used to define the
priority of a station of a frame . A station that is
assigned shorter IFS has a higher priority
 Contention Window: Contention window are an
amount of time divided into slots . A station that is
ready to send choose a random number of slots as
its wait time.
 Station set one slot for the first time and then
double each time the station cannot detect an idle
channel after the IFS time.
 In this method the station needs to senses the
channel after each time slots
 If the station finds the channel busy it does not
restart the process it just stops the timer and
restarts it when the channel is sensed as idle.
 This method gives the priority to the station
with the longest waiting time.
 Acknowledgements: The data may be
corrupted during the transmission . The
positive acknowledgement and the out can help
guarantee that the receiver the frame
Flow diagram for CSMA/CA
2 CONTROLLED ACCESS

In controlled access, the stations consult one another

to find which station has the right to send. A station
cannot send unless it has been authorized by other
stations. We discuss three popular controlled-access
methods.

Topics discussed in this section:

Reservation
Polling
Token Passing
 1. Reservation : 1)Before sending data station
needs to make a reservations .
 2) Number of reservation are equal to number of
stations.
 3) Each station have their own mini slots in the
reservation frame.
 4)When station needs to send a data frame it
makes a reservation in its own mini slots.
 5) The stations that have made reservations can
send their data frames after the reservations
frame.
 6) In this first slot only station 1 3 and 4 have
made reservations .
Reservation access method

Reservation-station needs to make a reservation before sending data

 2. Polling: 1) polling works with topology
 2) One device is designed as primary station and other
devices are secondary station.
 3) Link control is done by primary devices
 4) All data exchange take place trough primary devices.
 5) Primary devices decides which devices is allowed to
use the channel at a given time.
 6) If primary devices wants to receives data it asks the
secondary if they have anything to send this function is
called polling.
 Select:1) The select mode primary devices sends data
to secondary devices.
 2) Link is available if primary devices is not sending or
receiving any data.
 3) Before sending data the primary creates and
transmits a select frame.
 4) SEL frame includes address of the intended
secondary devices.
 Select and poll functions in polling access method

Polling – one device as primary station and the other device as secondary station
Select – primary device wants to send data to secondary device, secondary device
gets ready to receive
Poll – primary device solicits (ask) transmissions from secondary devices
3. Token passing – stations in network organized in a logical ring –
predecessor and successor

Token – gives station right to access the channel; needs token

management

Physical ring – station sends the token to successor

Dual ring – uses second ring which operates in reverse direction

Bus ring (token bus) - stations are connected to single cable called
bus, but make logical ring

Star ring - physical topology star, wiring inside hub makes the ring
Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method
III. CHANNELIZATION

Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the

available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between different stations.
They are 3 types.

1.Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

2.Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
3.Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
1. FDMA:
 In FDMA the available bandwidth is divided
in to frequency bands. Each station is
allocated a band to send data . In other
words, each bands is reserved for a
specific station , and it get it belongs to
the station all the time. Each station also
uses a band pass filter to confine the
transmitter frequencies . To prevent
station interferences the allocated bands
are separated from one another by small
guard bands.
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
2.TDMA:
 In TDM the stations share the bandwidth of the
channel in time. Each station is allocated a
time slot during which it can send data. Each
station transmit its data in is assigned time slot.
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
3. CDMA:

 In CDMA one channel carries all transmission

simultaneously.
 The CDMA differs from FDMA because only
one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of
the link. There is no time sharing.
CDMA