Chapter 1.

4
Processor fundamentals

Computer Architecture and

the Fetch-Execute Cycle
1.4.1 CPU architecture

• Show understanding of the basic Von

Neumann model for a computer system and
the stored program concept
Von Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann Architecture

• John Von Neumann introduced the idea of the stored program.

• “ Stored program” means data and program are stored on memory

before it is processed.
• Program and data are indistinguishable

• The Von Neumann architecture uses a single processor which follows a

linear sequence of fetch-decode-execute.

• Instructions are processed one after another in a linear order

• Problem : it takes a long time to process when large amount of

instructions are to be processed. This is called the “Von Neumann’s
bottleneck”
Von Neumann Architecture

1(a) Describe what is meant by Von Neumann architecture. [3]

Answer :

• Von Neumann introduces the concept of stored program, where program and
data are loaded onto the memory before it is processed.
• Program and data are indistinguishable
• Von Neumann’s architecture uses a single processor.
• The single processor processes instruction in a linear manner, where one
instruction is processed at a time.
• Since one instruction is processed at a time, it takes a long time to process
when large amount of instructions are to be processed. This is called the Von
Neumann’s Bottleneck.
1.4.1 CPU architecture

• Show understanding of the roles carried out by registers,

including the difference between general purpose and special purpose registers:

• Program Counter,
• Memory Data Register,
• Memory Address Register,
• Index Register,
• Current Instruction Register and
• Status Register
Registers
Registers
A register is a discrete memory location within the CPU designed to hold
temporary data and instructions

A modern CPU will has many internal registers.

They include a number of general purpose registers that the programmer can
use to hold intermediate results whilst working through a calculation or
algorithm.

Then there are special-purpose registers designed to carry out a specific role.
Each of these registers are given a name so that the programmer can write
their software code to access them

General purpose registers as being discrete memory locations within the

CPU used to hold temporary data and instructions.

A special purpose register is one that has a specific control or data handling
task to carry out.
Registers
Low level languages make direct use of the hardware within the CPU.

This means the programmer needs to know a lot about the internal structure of
the CPU in order to write low level code.

In particular, they to know about the registers within the CPU

General Purpose Registers
General purpose registers are available to store any transient data
required by the program.

For example, when a program is interrupted its state, ie: the value of
the registers such as the
program counter,
instruction register or
memory address register

- may be saved into the general purpose registers( Process Control

Block(PCB) ), ready for recall when the program is ready to start
again.

In general the more registers a CPU has available, the faster it can
work.
Special Purpose Registers in the Processor
• Program Counter
• Memory Address Register
• Memory Data Register
• Current Instruction Register
• Control Unit
• Accumulator
• Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Index Register
• Status Register
Special Purpose Registers in the Processor
• Program counter
- The address of the next instruction
- Originally set to point to first instruction in the program
- After the contents have been used/passed to memory address register
(MAR)
- PC automatically increments to next address
- If the current instruction is a jump instruction (whose conditions are
met) then the PC is reset to the address in the instruction
- Controls the sequence of instructions

• Memory Address Register

- Holds the address of next instruction when passed from PC
- Holds the address of data location to be accessed when passed from
CIR
- Holds the address of memory location currently in use
- Holds the address of the instruction/data that is next to be used
Special Purpose Registers in the Processor

• Memory Data Register

- Contents of any address that has been accessed are placed in here
first before being used
- May be an instruction or a piece of data
- OR:
- Holds data/instructions when being passed

• Current Instruction Register

- Holds the instruction while it is being executed
- Contains both function and address/operand
- Passes data from MDR to CU
Special Purpose Registers in the Processor

• Control Unit
- Decodes the instruction that has been fetched
- Decides how to carry out the execution of the instruction
- Instructs the relevant registers to carry out the instruction

• Accumulator
- Stores results of calculations/does the arithmetic
- All input to and output from processor pass through the accumulator
- Acts as a temporary storage for data before being processed by ALU
Special Purpose Registers in the Processor

• Arithmetic Logic Unit

- Carries out the arithmetic operations
- Carries out the logical operations
- Contains the accumulator

• Index Register
- contains a value which is added to the address (in the CIR) in order to
make the address of the data
- incremented after use so that a set of data can be read one after the
other without altering the raw address
Special Purpose Registers in the Processor

• Processor Status Register

– The Processor Status Register (abbreviated as P) is a hardware register which records
the condition of the CPU as a result of arithmetic, logical or command operations.
– The purpose of the Processor Status Register is to hold information about the most
recently performed ALU operation, control the enabling and disabling of interrupts and
set the CPU operating mode.
– The condition of the processor is recorded by seven combined processor flags and
control flags (all within a single byte).
– Each flag corresponds to a single bit within the Processor Status Register which are
explicitly or implicitly read and/or written.
– When writing, the bits are set (1 or true) or cleared (0 or false).
– Table 1 lists the seven flags in the Processor Status Register.
Registers in the Processor - Processor Status Register

Table 1 - Flags of the Processor Status Register

Bit Flag Abbreviation Purpose

Indicates when a bit of the result is to be carried to, or

0 Carry Flag C
borrowed from, another byte.

1 Zero Flag Z Indicates when the result is equal, or not, to zero.

Indicates when preventing, or allowing, non-maskable

2 Interrupt Request Disable Flag I
interrupts (NMI).

Indicates when switching between decimal/binary

3 Decimal Mode Flag D
modes.

Indicates when stopping the execution of machine

4 Break Command Flag B
code instructions.

5 Unused - Cannot be changed.

Indicates when the result is greater, or less, than can

6 Overflow Flag V
be stored in one byte (including sign).

Indicates when the result is negative, or positive, in

7 Negative Flag N
signed operations.
Registers in the Processor - Processor Status Register

Diagrammatically this can be seen as:

Registers in the Processor

• Status register

Maths in a processor is normally performed using set numbers of bits. For example where you add 8 bits to 8 bits.

This will often cause no problems at all:

00110011 (51)
+00001010 (10)
--------
00111101 (61)

But what happens if we add the following numbers together:

01110011 (115)
+01001010 (74)
--------
10111101 (189)

This may appear to have gone ok, but we have a problem.

If we are dealing with twos complement numbers the answer from adding two positive numbers together is negative!

01110011 (115)
+01001010 (74)
--------
10111101 (-67!)

Overflow
Registers in the Processor

Let's take a look at another problem example, the problem of overflow

Overflow - When the result of a calculation is too large to fit into a set number of bits

1010 (-6)
+1010 (-6)
--------
(1)0100 (+4!)

As you can see in the sum above, we have added two negative numbers together and the result is a positive
number.

To deal with the situations mentioned above we use the status register

Status Register - information about process states such as whether a result is zero, positive/negative
or resulted in overflow.
Registers in the Processor

Flag Name Description

Indicates that the result of an arithmetic or logical operation

Z Zero flag
(or, sometimes, a load) was zero.

Enables numbers larger than a single word (in the examples

above 4 or 8 bits) to be added/subtracted by carrying a
C Carry flag
binary digit from a less significant word to the least
significant bit of a more significant word as needed

One indicates whether the result was negative whereas the

Sign flag / Negative
S/N other indicates whether a subtraction or addition has taken
flag
place.

Indicates that the signed result of an operation is too large

O Overflow flag to fit in the register width using twos
complement representation.

Indicates whether the number of set bits of the last result is

P Parity flag
odd or even.
Registers in the Processor

Status register working

For the sum that we met earlier we will take a look at how the status register can be used to stop the incorrect answer
arising:

01110011 (115)
+01001010 (74)
--------
10111101 (-67)

Status register: Z = False | C = False | N = True | O = True | P = Even

Using these flags you can see that the result is negative, if the original sum used only positive values, then we know we
have an error.

Looking at the other equation:

1010 (-6)
+1010 (-6)
----
(1)0100

Status register: Z = False | C = True | N = False | O = True | P = Odd

Using these flags you can see that the result is positive when the original used two negative numbers.

We can also see that overflow occurred.

Registers in the Processor

Exercise: Status register

1. What is the problem with the result of the following 4 bit sum:
1011 (-5)
+1011 (-5)
---------

2. In the context of calculations what is overflow?

3. What do we need the status register for?

4. Name three flags in a status register:

5. Show the Status register for the following sum:

1001 (-7)
+ 1001 (-7)
----------
(1)0010 (+2)
Registers in the Processor

• Answer :

1. The result would create overflow, giving an incorrect answer:

1011 (-5)
+1011 (-5)
---------
(1)0110 (+6)

2. When a the result of a calculation is too large to fit into a set number of bits.

3. The status register holds flags keeping track of the results of sums, this helps us to see when there is an
error in a result and correct it accordingly.

4. Overflow, Carry, Negative, Zero

5. Status register: Z = False | C = True | N = False | O = True | P = Odd

Registers in the Processor
Registers in the Processor

1 Explain the purpose of each of the following special registers in a

processor.

(i) Program Counter (Sequence Control Register). [2]

(ii) Current Instruction Register. [2]
(iii) Memory Address Register. [2]
(iv) Memory Data Register. [2]
(v) Accumulator. [2]
1.4.1 CPU architecture

• Show understanding of the roles carried out by the Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU), Control Unit and system clock

• show understanding of how the bus width and clock speed are factors that
contribute to the performance of the computer system
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs the execution part of the

machine cycle.

Specifically, the ALU carries out three operations:

• Arithmetic operations – performing calculations, which include

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

• Comparison operations – comparing data items to determine if the

first item is greater than, equal to, or less than the other item

• Logical operations – working with conditions and logical operators

such as AND, OR, and NOT
Control unit
The control unit (CU) is a component of a computer's central processing
unit (CPU) that directs the operation of the processor.

• It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic/logic unit and input and output
devices on how to respond to a program's instructions.

• It directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and control signals.

• Most computer resources are managed by the CU.

• It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices.

John von Neumann included the control unit as part of the von Neumann
architecture.

In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of

the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged since its introduction
System Clock

• The System Clock is an "electrical pulse generator" that sends out a

pulse of electricity at regular intervals.

• The electronic components of the computer need these electric pulses in

order to perform work.

• The more pulses sent out by the system clock, the faster the computer.

• The first personal computers had clock speeds of 8 MHz (8 million

pulses per second); today's PC's have clock speeds greater than 3.2
GHz (3.2 billion pulses per second).
Processor Performance

Depends on:

• Clock speed

• Word size

• Bus size
- Data bus
- Address bus

• Control bus

• Architecture
1.4.1 CPU architecture

• Show understanding of how data are

transferred between various components of
the computer system using the address bus,
data bus and control bus
Bus
• Bus Lines are "electrical data roadways" (i.e. wires) through which bits of
information are transmitted between the CPU and other components.

• The bus size denotes how many bits can be transmitted at once.

• In general, this should be the same as the CPU word size.

Bus
• There are basically three types of buses in any processor system:

– An address bus: this determines the location in memory that the

processor will read data from or write data to.

– A data bus: this contains the contents that have been read from the
memory location or are to be written onto the memory location.

– A control bus: this manages the information flow between

components indicating whether the operation is a read or a write
and ensuring that the operation happens at the right time.
Bus
1.4.1 CPU architecture

• Show understanding of how the bus width

and clock speed are factors that contribute
to the performance of the computer system
Bus
• Size of Data Bus
• Example Data
– LEWIS
– 01001100………….
– 8 bit data bus means need 5 seconds to transfer the data
– 40 bit data bus means 1 second to transfer the data

• Size of Address Bus

• 16 bits ….. 32 bits
• 16 bit means able to only access up to 65535 locations
• 32bits means can access up to 4gb locations
A – System clock
B – Control unit
C – Main memory
E – Control bus
F – Data bus
Ports

• Show understanding of the need for ports,

for example Universal Serial Bus (USB), to
provide the connection to peripheral devices
Ports
Ports
• Ports are sockets that are on the outside the system unit, meaning you can
easily plug a cable into a port without opening the system unit.
• a port serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or
peripheral devices
• Serial ports transmit one bit of data at a time.

• Parallel ports transmit 8 bits of data at a time.

• Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports are much faster than serial or parallel
ports and allow multiple devices to be connected to the same port.
Ports
• In computer terms, a port generally refers to the part of connection available
for connection between one computer to peripherals like input and output
ones.
• Computer ports have many uses, to connect a monitor, webcam, speakers, or
other peripheral devices.

Types of ports
Ports
Characteristics of Ports

A port has the following characteristics −

• External devices are connected to a computer using cables

and ports.

• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of

external device is plugged in.

• Examples of external devices attached via ports are the

mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers, etc.
Type of Port Description
Serial Port • Used for external modems and older computer mouse
• Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
Parallel Port • Used for scanners and printers
• Also called printer port
• 25 pin model
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
PS/2 Port • Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
• Also called mouse port
• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for
the mouse and keyboard
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus • It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as
(or USB) Port external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
• It was introduced in 1997.
• Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
• USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
VGA Port • Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
• It has 15 holes.
• Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port
connector has pins, VGA port has holes.
Type of Port Description
Firewire Port • Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
• Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
• Invented by Apple.
• It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin
FireWire 400 connector, and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.
Modem Port • Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.
Ethernet Port • Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
• Connects the network cable to a computer.
• This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds
depending upon the network bandwidth.
Game Port • Connect a joystick to a PC
• Now replaced by USB
Digital Video • Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end
Interface, DVI port video graphic cards.
• Very popular among video card manufacturers
Parallel processing

• Co-processor

• Pipeline Processing

• Vector Processing ( Array Processing )

 Co-processor

• A co-processor is a computer processor used to supplement the

functions of the primary processor (the CPU).

• Operations performed by the co-processor may be floating point

arithmetic, graphics, signal processing, string processing, encryption or
I/O Interfacing with peripheral devices.

• By offloading processor-intensive tasks from the main processor, co-

processors can accelerate system performance.

• Co-processors allow a line of computers to be customized, so that

customers who do not need the extra performance need not pay for it.

www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprocessor
Co-processor
This is a 286 to 386sx upgrade board with Maths Co processor!

• The original IBM PC included a socket

for the Intel 8087 floating-point
co-processor (aka FPU) which was a
popular option for people using the PC
for CAD or mathematics-intensive
calculations.

• In that architecture, the coprocessor

sped up floating-point arithmetic on the
order of fiftyfold.

• Users that only used the PC for word

processing, for example, saved the high
cost of the co-processor, which would
not have accelerated performance of
text manipulation operations.
 Co-processor
Modern PC co-processors

• As of 2002, dedicated Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) in the form of graphics cards are
commonplace.

• Certain models of sound cards have been fitted with dedicated processors providing
digital multichannel mixing and real-time DSP effects as early as 1990 to 1994 (the Gravis
Ultrasound and Sound Blaster AWE32 being typical examples), while the Sound Blaster
Audigy and the Sound Blaster X-Fi are more recent examples.

• In 2006, AGEIA announced an add-in card for computers that it calls PhysX. PhysX is
designed to perform complex physics computations so that the CPU and GPU do not have
to perform these time consuming calculations.

• It is designed to work with video games, although other mathematical uses could
theoretically be developed for it.
Parallel processing
What is Parallel Processing?

Parallel processing is another method used to improve performance

in a computer system, when a system processes two different
instructions simultaneously, it is performing parallel processing
Parallel processing
Pipeline processing : Pipelining concept in computer architecture

• It is observed that organization enhancements to the CPU can improve performance.

• Pipelining is a particularly effective way of organizing parallel activity in a computer
system.
• The basic idea is very simple. It is frequently encountered in manufacturing plants,
where pipelining is commonly known as an assembly line operation.
• By laying the production process out in an assembly line, product at various stages can
be worked on simultaneously.
• This process is also referred to as pipelining, because, as in a pipeline, new inputs are
accepted at one end before previously accepted inputs appear as outputs at the other
end.
 Pipeline processing : Pipelining concept in computer architecture
• To apply the concept of instruction execution in pipeline, it is required to break the
instruction in different task.
• Each task will be executed in different processing elements of the CPU.
• As we know that there are two distinct phases of instruction execution: one is
instruction fetch and the other one is instruction execution.
• Therefore, the processor executes a program by fetching and executing instructions,
one after another.

• Now consider a CPU that has two separate hardware units, one for fetching
instructions and another for executing them.
• The instruction fetch by the fetch unit is stored in an intermediate storage buffer.
• The results of execution are stored in the destination location specified by the
instruction.
• For simplicity it is assumed that fetch and execute steps of any instruction can be
completed in one clock cycle.
 Pipeline processing : Pipelining concept in computer architecture

The operation of the computer proceeds as follows:

• In the first clock cycle, the fetch unit fetches an instruction (instruction , step )
and stored it in buffer at the end of the clock cycle.
• In the second clock cycle, the instruction fetch unit proceeds with the fetch
operation for instruction (step ).
• Meanwhile, the execution unit performs the operation specified by instruction
which is already fetched and available in the buffer (step ).
• By the end of the second clock cycle, the execution of the instruction is completed
and instruction is available.
• Instruction is stored in buffer replacing , which is no longer needed.
• Step is performed by the execution unit during the third clock cycle, while
instruction is being fetched by the fetch unit.
• Both the fetch and execute units are kept busy all the time and one instruction is
completed after each clock cycle except the first clock cycle.
• If a long sequence of instructions is executed, the completion rate of instruction
execution will be twice that achievable by the sequential operation with only one
unit that performs both fetch and execute.
 Pipeline processing : Pipelining concept in computer architecture

Illustration of Pipeline processing

Time : 1 sec Time : 1 sec Time : 1 sec

Linear processing
Fetch : Instruction 1

Decode: Instruction 1

Execute: Instruction 1
Linear processing : 1 instruction being processed in 3 seconds

Parallel processing
Fetch : Instruction 1

Fetch : Instruction 2 Decode : Instruction 1

Fetch : Instruction 3 Decode : Instruction 2 Execute : Instruction 1

Parallel processing : 3 instructions being processed per second
Parallel processing
• Vector Processing ( Array Processing )
Parallel processing

• Vector Processing ( Array Processing )

• The use of many processors, each processor can carry out the same
process on different data.

Data

Processor 1 Processor 2 Processor 3 Processor 4 Processor 5

E.g. : Adding 100 numbers.

Using 50 separate processors compared to using a single processor
Basic Definitions
• Hardware: The physical parts of a computer.

• Transistor: A tiny electrically operated switch that can alternate between "on"
and "off".

• Chip (aka Microchip aka Integrated Circuit): A tiny piece of silicon that
contains millions of transistors and other electronic components.
Hardware Overview
• Modern-day computer systems usually contain, at a minimum, the following
hardware components:

• The System Unit

• Motherboard (aka System Board):
• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• Memory, such as RAM, ROM, Cache, and Flash
• Ports
• Expansion Slots
• Secondary Storage, such as hard disk drives, CD-ROMs, etc.
• Input / Output Devices
• Communications Devices
The System Unit
• The Motherboard is the main circuit board for the computer, containing both
soldered, nonremovable components along with sockets or slots for components
that can be removed.

• The motherboard holds the CPU, RAM and ROM chips, etc.
 The System Unit
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer. It executes
instructions (from software) and tells other components what to do.
• The Intel Pentium is a popular processor for IBM-PCs.
• The PowerPC is a popular processor for Macintoshes.
• There are 2 parts of the CPU: The ALU and Control Unit.
• The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations (such as
addition and subtraction) and logical operations (such as comparing two
values).
• An optional math co-processor can take the place of the ALU. It performs
the same operations, only it is faster.
• The Control Unit deciphers and carries out instructions.
• Different CPUs have different types of instructions, so software made for one
type of CPU will not run on other kinds.
• The word size denotes how many bits of data a CPU can process at once. 32
bits is the standard word size for CPU's used in personal computers today. The
higher the word size, the faster a CPU can execute instructions.
The System Unit
• The System Clock is an "electrical pulse generator" that sends out a pulse of
electricity at regular intervals. The electronic components of the computer need
these electric pulses in order to perform work. The more pulses sent out by the
system clock, the faster the computer. The first personal computers had clock
speeds of 8 MHz (8 million pulses per second); today's PC's have clock speeds
greater than 3.2 GHz (3.2 billion pulses per second).

• Bus Lines are "electrical data roadways" (i.e. wires) through which bits of
information are transmitted between the CPU and other components. The bus
size denotes how many bits can be transmitted at once. In general, this should
be the same as the CPU word size.
 The System Unit
• Memory Chips
• Random Access Memory (RAM), also known as Main Memory or Primary
Storage, is used to hold instructions and data while they are being used. RAM
is volatile, meaning its contents are lost when the power goes off. RAM is
more than 1000x faster than the fastest secondary storage.
• Cache memory is special high-speed memory that temporarily stores
instructions and data the CPU is likely to use frequently. This speeds up
processing. Level 2 or external caches generally range in size from 64
Kilobytes to 2 Megabytes.
• Read Only Memory (ROM) chips are non-volatile memory that generally
contains instructions for "booting" the computer (i.e. loading the operating
system when the computer starts up).
• CMOS chips are powered by a battery and contain so-called "flexible
information" such as the type of hard drive your computer is using and the
current date and time.
• Flash chips do not require electricity or a battery yet are non-volatile. They are
used in computers, cell phones, digital cameras, etc.
The System Unit
• Expansion Slots are sockets on the motherboard that you can plug expansion
cards into. To plug a card into a slot, you must open the system unit. A card
contain a socket on its end that sticks out from the system unit so a cable can be
plugged into it. Common types of cards are graphics, sound, and network cards.

• Ports are sockets that are on the outside othe system unit, meaning you can
easily plug a cable into a port without opening the system unit.
• Serial ports transmit one bit of data at a time.
• Parallel ports transmit 8 bits of data at a time.
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports are much faster than serial or parallel
ports and allow multiple devices to be connected to the same port.
Secondary Storage
• Devices that "permanently" hold data and information (i.e. programs).
• Non-volatile memory; when the power goes off, contents are still saved (unless
there is an error).
• Used to store instructions and data while they are not being used
 Secondary Storage
• A floppy disk is a removable (i.e. portable) platter made of mylar plastic that is
magnetized. Bits of information are stored in concentric rings called tracks on
either side of the platter. The current floppy disk standard is a 3 1/2" platter in a
hard plastic case that holds 1.44 Megabytes of information. A Zip disk, on the
other hand, can hold up to 250 Megabytes.
• A hard disk is similar to a floppy disk but uses metal platters to store information.
Hard disks are not only much faster than floppy disks but can hold huge amounts
of data (hundreds of gigabytes).
• Both floppy and hard drives use a read/write head, which is basically a magnet,
to read/write information from/to tracks on a platter. In a hard drive, the read/write
head and platter(s) are enclosed together in an air-tight package, making hard
drives less susceptible to damage. The read/write head hovers above the platter
but should not touch it. If touched, the platter can be damaged, resulting in the
loss of some or all the data on the platter. This is known as a head crash.
• Magnetic tape is used mostly for backups. These are very slow because you have
to fast forward or rewind to the right spot. However, they are very reliable.
 Secondary Storage
• Optical discs use optical technology (i.e. lasers) instead of magnetic technology
to store information.
• CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc - Read Only Memory.
• CD-R stands for Compact Disc - Recordable and can be written to only once.
(Also known as CD-WORM: Compact Disc - Write Once, Read Many.)
• CD-RW stands for Compact Disc - Re-writeable (or Read/Write).
• DVD-ROM stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Read Only Memory.
• DVD-R stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Recordable and can be written to
only once.
(Also known as DVD-WORM: Digital Versatile Disc - Write Once, Read
Many.)
• DVD-RW stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Re-writeable (or Read/Write).
• CD's can hold approximately 650 Megabytes of data while DVD's can hold
up to 17 Gigabytes.
Input / Output Devices
• Input devices translate data into a form the computer can understand.
• The keyboard is the most common input device, but this type of data entry
is very slow and error-prone.
• Direct input devices are much faster and less error-prone.
• Pointing devices such as the mouse, trackball, and touchpad allow you
to manipulate a cursor on the screen.
• Scanning devices read data directly. For example, OMR (Optical Mark
Recognition) devices (such as a scantron machine) can sense marks on
paper. Even more advanced are OCR (Optical Characgter Recognition)
devices, which attempt to read letters.Bar Code Readers are often used
in grocery stores (i.e. with the UPC - Universal Product Code system) to
scan items.
Input / Output Devices
• Output devices translate information into a form humans can understand.
• The Monitor (or Display Screen) is the most common type of output
device. It producessoftcopy (i.e. temporary) output on a screen.
• The Printer is the most second most common type of output device. It
produces hardcopy(i.e. "permanent") output on paper.
• A Laser Printer uses a photoelectric drum and powdered ink, similar to
a copying machine, to produce output.
• An Inkjet Printer produces output by spraying droplets of liquid ink
onto the paper from small nozzles. It is the most common type of printer
in use today and is generally very inexpensive.
Communications Devices
• These allow your computer to send/receive data to/from other computers.
• A modem sends information over a phone line. Modems are slow and
susceptible to problems such as phone line static.
• A network card sends information over a network cable. These can be used to
hook up a computer to a local area network (LAN) or to an Internet Service
Provider via a cable modem or DSL (for Internet access)
 Measurements in Computer Science
• Bit (Binary Digit): Can only have a value of either 0 or 1.
• Byte: 8 bits (also known as a Character).
• ASCII: A code that assigns characters, such as 'a', 'b', etc. unique 8-bit (i.e. 1
byte) values. This allows information created on one computer to be
understood by other computers. Contains English letters only.
• Unicode: A code that assigns characters, such as 'a', 'b', etc. unique 16-bit (i.e.
2 byte) values. This code contains letters for all major languages but still
understands ASCII.
• There are other codes besides ASCII and Unicode, but they are the most
common and are used in virtually all personal computers and most larger
computers as well.
• Kilobyte: 1024 bytes (or 2^10 bytes).
• Megabyte: 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^20 bytes). Roughly one million bytes.
• Gigabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^30 bytes). Roughly one billion bytes.
• Terabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^40 bytes). Roughly one trillion
bytes.
Thank you