Chapter 1:

Introduction to Educational Research

Objectives:
 List and briefly describe the major steps
involved in conducting a research study.
 Describe the differences between
quantitative and qualitative research.
 Briefly define and state the major
characteristics of these research
approaches: survey, correlational, causal–
comparative, experimental, single-subject,
narrative, ethnographic, and case study.
Chapter 1:
Introduction to Educational Research
Objectives:
 Identify and differentiate among research
purposes, including basic research, applied
research, evaluation research, research
and development (R&D), and action
research.
 Recognize the ethical obligations that
educational researchers have and describe
the codes and procedures they follow to
ensure they adhere to them.
Characteristics of Educational
Research
 Hundreds of researchers conduct
research on teaching and learning.
 Educational research is a growing field
and educational researchers are
becoming better trained.
 One purpose of this course is to assist
students in acquiring a general
understanding of research processes
and to help them develop the
perspective of a researcher.
 Methods of Knowing
 Experience: Fundamental means
to understanding
 Text example: Touch a hot stove and
learn that heat hurts
 Additional example: Learn quickest
driving route through living in a city
for an extended time
 Methods of Knowing
 Authority: Trusted source
 Text example: A parent, teacher,
newspaper, or other source informs
 Additional example: An experienced
cab driver tells you the quickest route
through a city
 Reasoning: Thinking—using
logical thought to draw conclusions
Inductive Reasoning
 Inductive Reasoning: Developing
generalizations based on observation of
a limited number of related events or
experiences
 An instructor reviews research methods
texts and notices sampling content in each
text and concludes that all research
methods texts have sampling
 A teacher knows several student athletes
who are good students and concludes that
all student athletes are good students
Deductive Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning: Arriving at
specific conclusions based on general
principles, observations, or experiences
 All research textbooks contain a chapter on
sampling. The book you are reading is a
research text and therefore must contain a
sampling chapter.
 All student athletes are good students.
Mary is a student athlete and therefore she
must be a good student.
Scientific Method
 Inductive, deductive, authority,
and experience are all limited and
subject to error. Instead, as
researchers, we rely on the
Scientific Method.
Scientific Method
Steps of the Scientific Method
 Recognition and identification of a problem
 Formulation of hypothesis
 Data collection
 Data analysis
 Statement of conclusions
 Confirm or disconfirm hypothesis
 Hypothesis: an explanation for the occurrence
of certain behaviors, phenomena, or events
Limitations of the Scientific Method
• The scientific method can not answer
all questions, especially those of a
philosophical or ethical nature.
• Application of the scientific method
can never capture the full richness of
the context.
• Measurement error is a limitation of
the scientific method.
The Scientific Method in Education
 Research: Formal systematic
application of the scientific method
to the study of problems.

 Educational Research: Formal,

systematic application of the
scientific method to the study of
educational problems.
The Scientific Method in Education
 The goal of educational research is
to describe, explain, predict, and
control situations involving human
beings.

 There are many challenges faced

when conducting educational
research. Many of those relate to
control.
The Scientific Method in Education
1. Selection and definition of a problem
• A problem is a question of interest.
• The problem can be tested or the
question answered through the
collection and analysis of data.
• Generally researchers use a review of
the existing literature to generate
hypotheses related to their question.
The Scientific Method in Education
2. Execution of research procedures
• Research procedures are dictated by
the research problem and the
identified variables.
• Procedures include activities related
to collecting data about the problem.
The Scientific Method in Education
3. Analysis of Data
• Data are analyzed such that the
researcher can test the hypothesis or
answer the research question.
• Data analysis often includes statistical
techniques.
The Scientific Method in Education
3. Analysis of Data
• Data analysis may include synthesis
of narrative data.
• Data analysis may generate new
questions and new hypothesis for
further exploration.
The Scientific Method in Education
4. Drawing and stating conclusions
 Conclusions are based upon analyses
of our data and are stated in terms of
the original hypothesis or research
question.
 Conclusions should indicate whether
the hypothesis was rejected or
supported.
The Scientific Method in Education
4. Drawing and stating conclusions
 For those studies that include
synthesis of verbal data, conclusions
may be more tentative.
Approaches to Educational Research
 Educational research is often
broadly categorized as qualitative
or quantitative.
 Both quantitative and qualitative
researchers collect and analyze data.
 Both quantitative and qualitative
researchers derive conclusions and
interpretations.
Approaches to Educational Research
Quantitative Qualitative

 Numerical data  Narrative and visual

 Describes, predicts or data
controls variables of  Gains insights into
interest phenomenon of
 The world is relatively interest
uniform, stable, and  Knowledge is
predictable. situated and
contextual. There
are different
perspectives.
Approaches to Educational Research
Quantitative Qualitative

 Researchers state  Researchers form

hypothesis, specify foreshadowed problems.
research procedures, They don’t control but
and control context. explain context.
 Researchers identify  A large amount of data is
large samples. collected over an
 Researchers are extended time in a
interested in natural setting.
statistical  Data are categorized and
significance. organized into patterns.
Examples
Quantitative Qualitative

 Are there differences  What are the social

in the amount of experiences of
discipline referrals middle school girl
between girls and with an Autism
boys with Autism Spectrum Disorder?
Spectrum Disorders?
Examples
Quantitative Qualitative

 What variable best  What challenges do first

predicts whether first generation college
generation college students from small
students stay rural schools experience
continually enrolled in as they enroll in
college until college?
graduation?
Examples
Quantitative Qualitative

 Do students exposed to  How do students

animated science describe their
materials learn more if experiences learning
the animation is from animated science
accompanied by sound materials?
or no sound?
Survey Research
 Survey research determines and reports
the ‘current status’ of the subject of
study.
 Survey research often collects
numerical data to test hypotheses or
answer questions.
 Survey research may examine
preferences, attitudes, or opinions.
 e.g., How do parents feel about national
teacher certification?
 e.g., To what degree do students report
test anxiety before the SAT exam?
Correlational Research
 Correlational research provides a quantitative
measure of relationship between or among
variables.
 This measure is expressed as a correlation
coefficient.
 Ranges from -1 to 1; 0 indicates no relationship
 Correlational studies do not indicate cause-
effect relations among variables.
 e.g., A high correlation between self-concept and
achievement does not mean that self-concept
causes higher achievement.
Causal-Comparative Research
 Causal-comparative research attempts to
determine the cause or reason for existing
differences.
 The grouping variable is the potential
cause.
 The dependent variable is the effect.
Causal-Comparative Research
 Examples
 Are there differences in final exam
performance between students given a
practice exam and those given more time
for independent study?
 Are there differences between elderly men
and women who recently experienced a
stroke in the amount of minutes of exercise
during rehabilitation prior to release from
hospital?
Causal-Comparative Research
 Causal-comparative research provides
limited cause-effect data but true
cause-effect findings can be
determined only through experimental
research.
Causal-Comparative Research
 Sometimes it is impossible to conduct
true experiments such as when
grouping variables:
 Cannot be manipulated.
 e.g., year in school, age, gender
 Should not be manipulated.
 e.g., attended rehabilitation or not; exposed to
verbal abuse or not
Experimental Research
 Experimental research includes at least
one independent variable and the effect is
measured on at least one dependent
variable.
 In experimental research extraneous
variables are controlled.
Experimental Research
 In experimental studies researchers select
participants, group participants,
administer treatments, control the
research setting, control the length of
treatment exposure, select research
measures, and are able to draw cause-
effect conclusions.
Experimental Research
 Sometimes experimental research is not
possible in educational contexts because of
difficulties with random selection and random
assignment.
 Examples:
 Are there differences in achievement between
students randomly assigned to one of two problem
solving strategy conditions?
 The independent variable is problem solving
strategy conditions.
 The dependent variable is achievement.
Experimental Research
 Is there an effect of corrective feedback
on students’ achievement on final physics
test scores and interest in physics?
 The independent variable is corrective

feedback.
 The dependent variables are final test

scores and interest.

Single-Subject Research
 Single-subject experimental designs are used
to study behavior change within a person or a
group as they are exposed to an intervention
or a treatment.
 In single-subject research the size of the
sample is one.
 e.g., The effects of graphing intervention on off-
task behavior.
 e.g., The effects of a cessation program on
smoking.
Qualitative Research
 Qualitative researchers seek rich
understandings.
 Qualitative studies are conducted through
sustained in-depth, in-context, research.
 There are numerous approaches to
qualitative research.
 e.g., historical research, symbolic interaction,
grounded theory, ethology, phenomenology
Narrative Research
 Narrative researchers study how
different people experience their world.
 Narrative research allows for people to
tell the story of their lives.
 Narrative researchers often focus on
one person and collect stories of that
person’s life.
Narrative Research
 Narrative researchers establish a
trusting personal relationship with their
participants.
 The narrative is the story of the
phenomenon being investigated and
also the method of inquiry.
Narrative Research
 Examples
 What is the experience of students
in a new co-ed dormitory?
 How does a winning coach react
when faced with a less skilled team
and a losing season?
Ethnographic Research
 Ethnography is the study of cultural
patterns and perspectives of
participants in their natural settings.
 Ethnographers avoid interpretations
early and enter the setting slowly.
 Ethnographers have personal
relationships with their participants.
 Ethnographic researchers collect data
in waves, re-entering the site several
times.
Ethnographic Research
 The resultant ethnography is a
narrative that presents participants’
everyday events.
 During data collection the ethnographer
identifies categories and enters themes
into these categories.
 e.g., How does the returning student
population adjust to technology enhanced
instruction in entry level college courses?
Types of Research by Method
 Case study is a qualitative approach
that examines a bounded system for
study.
 Case study includes specific design,
data collection techniques, and data
analysis strategies.
 e.g., What are the challenges faced by a
school board with shrinking district
population and mandated facility
renovations?
Qualitative Research Process
1. Identifying a research topic
• The initial topic is often narrowed.
2. Reviewing the literature
• Previous research is examined to garner
important information.
3. Selecting participants
• Generally fewer purposely sampled
participants than in quantitative studies.
4. Collecting data
• Generally interviews, observations, and
artifacts serve as data.
Qualitative Research Process
5. Analyzing and interpreting data
• Researchers analyze for themes and
generate interpretations.
6. Reporting and evaluating the
research
• Researchers summarize and integrate
the data in narrative and visual form.
Qualitative Research
1. Qualitative researchers spend a great
amount of time in the field and
engage in person-to-person
interactions.
2. Qualitative data are analyzed
inductively.
3. Qualitative researchers avoid making
assumptions and remain open to
alternative explanations.
Classification of Research
 The approach used in a study is
determined by the research problem.
 Often the same general problem can be
approached from several different types
of study.
 Research methods are selected after
the topic or question is determined.
For Practice…
Given the general topic of year-
round schooling, suggest how this
topic can be addressed differently
by each one of the types of
research.
Potential Answers
 Survey: What are parents’ opinions
about year-round schooling?
 Correlational: Is there a relationship
between standardized test scores and
year-round schooling?
 Causal-Comparative: Are there
differences in amount of content
mastered between children enrolled in
year-round schooling versus those in
traditional schooling?
Potential Answers…
 Experimental: Are there differences in
self-esteem between those students
randomly assigned to districts with
year-round schooling versus those
assigned to traditional schooling?
 Single subject: What are the effects of
year-round schooling on the vocabulary
use of students who are reading
disabled?
Potential Answers…
 Narrative: What is the experience of
Tom, an eighth grade teacher, as he
modifies his curriculum to
accommodate year-round schooling?
 Ethnographic: What are the
experiences of migrant families in a
district that has turned to year-round
schooling?
Research by Purpose
 Basic and applied research
 Basic research is conducted to develop or
refine theory.
 Applied research is conducted to apply or
test a theory.
 Evaluation research
 Evaluation research is a form of applied
research that involves data collection for
decision making.
 Evaluation research may be formative or
summative.
Research by Purpose
 Research and Development (R & D)
 Research and development is the
process of researching needs and
developing products to fit those
needs.
 Action Research
 Action research is a systematic
inquiry conducted by teachers,
principals, or other stakeholders.
Ethics of Educational Research
 Ethical considerations are an important
part of research.
 Researchers must be aware of and
attend to ethical considerations.
 Two main overarching ethical rules
guide researchers.
 Participants should not be harmed.
 Researchers obtain participants’ informed
consent.
Ethics of Educational Research
 Most societies for behavioral
researchers have similar codes for
ethical research largely due to the
National Research Act of 1974 which
Created a code for the protection of
human subjects.
Ethics of Educational Research
 Most institutions have review groups
that assure participant protections.
 IRB (Institutional Review Board) or HSRC
(Human Subjects Review Committee)
 Researchers must submit their
proposal for review and approval.
Ethics of Educational Research
 Informed consent and protection from
harm
 Research participants must not be harmed
in any way
 Physically, mentally, socially
 Research participants freely agree to
participate
 Informed consent: Researchers provide
information about the study and any potential
dangers
Ethics of Educational Research
 Researchers ensure freedom from
harm
 No undue risks
 Personal privacy and confidentiality
 Limit access of data to those who ‘need to
know’
 Participants’ involvement should not be
reported
Ethics of Educational Research
 Anonymity
 Study participants have complete
anonymity when their identities are
unknown to the researcher.
 Confidentiality
 Study participants are known to
researcher but are not disclosed.
 e.g., removing names from data
Ethics of Educational Research
The Buckley Amendment (The Family
Educational Rights and Privacy Act of
1974)
 Data that identifies a student is not
available without written permission
 Must describe what data, for what
purposes, and to whom
Ethics of Educational Research
 Deception poses an ethical dilemma.
If the participants know the purpose of
a study, it may change their behavior.
 e.g., gender, race, attitudes, medical status
 When a study must use deception it
causes problems for informed consent.
These types of studies must undergo
strict ethical review.
Ethics of Qualitative Research
 In addition to ethics of educational
research generally, qualitative research
often poses additional ethical
challenges.
 The nature of the research changes so
informed consent is challenging.
 The close relationship between the
researcher and the participant may allow
the researcher to know personal and
perhaps ill-acts of the participant that may
pose ethical challenges.
Ethical Guideposts
 A researcher should have an ethical
perspective with regard to the
research that is very close to her
personal ethical position.
 Informed consent should be
obtained through a dialogue
between the researcher and the
participants.
Ethical Guideposts
 Be cognizant of the broader social
principles that define your ethical
stance. Potential results do not drive
ethical standards.
 Minimize the potential for harm to
your participants.
 Attend to confidentiality and omit
deception.
Gaining Entry to the Research Site
 Researchers need cooperation to
conduct their studies.
 Identify and follow procedures for gaining
approval at any given site.
 e.g., superintendent or school board
 Procedures generally require filling out
forms that describe the study.
 Researchers may need permission from
principals or teachers.
 Written permission from parents is often
required.
Gaining Entry to the Research Site
 Gaining entry and obtaining permission
often takes considerable time.
 Schools and other research
communities may request something in
return for their participation in your
study.
 e.g., a final report prior to dissemination,
professional development, parent education