Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th Edition

Y.A. Cengel, M.A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2014

Chapter 4
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CLOSED SYSTEMS

Salmiaton Ali, PhD

Objectives
• Examine the moving boundary work or P dV work commonly
encountered in reciprocating devices such as automotive engines
and compressors.
• Identify the first law of thermodynamics as simply a statement of
the conservation of energy principle for closed (fixed mass)
systems.
• Develop the general energy balance applied to closed systems.
• Define the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at
constant pressure.
• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in
internal energy and enthalpy of ideal gases.
• Describe incompressible substances and determine the changes in
their internal energy and enthalpy.
• Solve energy balance problems for closed (fixed mass) systems
that involve heat and work interactions for general pure
substances, ideal gases, and incompressible substances.
2
MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process:
The expansion and compression work A process during which the system
in a piston-cylinder device. remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.
Wb is positive  for expansion
Wb is negative  for compression

The work associated

with a moving
boundary is called
A gas does a boundary work.
differential
amount of work
Wb as it forces
the piston to
move by a
differential
amount ds. 3
 The boundary
work done
during a process
depends on the
path followed as
well as the end
states.

The area under the process

curve on a P-V diagram
represents the boundary work. The net work done
during a cycle is the
difference between
the work done by
the system and the
work done on the
system.
4
Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processes
Polytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants
Polytropic
process

Polytropic and for ideal gas

When n = 1
(isothermal process)

Constant pressure process

What is the boundary

work for a constant-
volume process?

Schematic and
P-V diagram for
a polytropic
process. 5
ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
Energy balance for any system
undergoing any process

Energy balance
in the rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is

Energy balance per

unit mass basis
Energy balance in
differential form

Energy balance for a cycle where

Esystem = E2 – E1 = 0
(initial = final state)
6
Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work
output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W. for closed systems when sign
convention is used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known
to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
7
 Energy balance for a constant-pressure
expansion or compression process
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure expansion
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium or compression process:

U  Wb  H
constant-pressure process. Q is to the
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

8
 SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-
volume and
constant-
Specific heat is the energy pressure specific
required to raise the heats cv and cp
temperature of a unit mass (values are for
of a substance by one helium gas).
degree in a specified way. 9
• The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units
identical?

Formal definitions of cv and cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than cv.
10
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
u=u(T) u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
vary with
temperature only.
11
• At low pressures, all real gases approach • u and h data for a number of
ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their gases have been tabulated.
specific heats depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low choosing an arbitrary reference
pressures are called ideal-gas specific point and performing the
heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and integrations by treating state 1
are often denoted cp0 and cv0. as the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure
specific heats
for some
gases (see In the preparation of ideal-gas
Table A–2c tables, 0 K is chosen as the
for cp reference temperature.
equations). 12
Internal energy and enthalpy change
when specific heat is taken constant at an
average value (Table A.2 (b); Table A.2 (a)
for monatomic gases)

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the

specific heats may be assumed to vary
linearly with temperature.

The relation  u = cv T
is valid for any kind of
process, constant-
volume or not.
13
Three ways of calculating u and h for ideal gases
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations. This
is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats.
This is very simple and certainly very
convenient when property tables are
not available. The results obtained Three ways of calculating u.
are reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very large
(Table A-2b).

14
 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
constant at 1.667.
The cp of an ideal gas can be
determined from a knowledge of • Many diatomic gases, including air,
cv and R. have a specific heat ratio of about
1.4 at room temperature.
15
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume
(or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible
substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of

incompressible substances incompressible substances are
remain constant during a identical and are denoted by c.
process.
16
Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 17
Summary
• Moving boundary work
 Wb for an isothermal process
 Wb for a constant-pressure process
 Wb for a polytropic process
• Energy balance for closed systems
 Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or
compression process
• Specific heats
 Constant-pressure specific heat, cp
 Constant-volume specific heat, cv
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases
 Specific heat relations of ideal gases
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of
incompressible substances (solids and liquids)

18
Examples
• A frictionless piston-cylinder device initially contains 200 L
of saturated liquid refrigerant-134a. The piston is free to
move, and its mass is such that it maintains a pressure of
900 kPa on the refrigerant. The refrigerant is now heated
until its temperature rises to 70oC. Calculate the work done
during the process.
• A piston-cylinder device contains 0.2 kg of water initially at
800 kPa and 0.06 m3. Now 200 kJ of heat is transferred to
the water while its pressure is held constant. Determine the
final temperature of the water. Also, show the process on a
T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.
• A piston-cylinder device containing argon gas as the system
undergoes an isothermal process from 200 kPa and 100oC
to 50 kPa. During the process, 1500 kJ of heat is
transferred to the system. Determine the mass of the
system and the amount of work produced during the
process.
19