Python Programing:

An Introduction to
Computer Science

Chapter 11
Data Collections

Python Programming, 2/e 1

Objectives
 To understand the use of lists (arrays)
to represent a collection of related data.
 To be familiar with the functions and
methods available for manipulating
Python lists.
 To be able to write programs that use
lists to manage a collection of
information.

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Objectives
 To be able to write programs that use
lists and classes to structure complex
data.
 To understand the use of Python
dictionaries for storing nonsequential
collections.

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Example Problem:
Simple Statistics
 Many programs deal with large
collections of similar information.
 Words in a document
 Students in a course
 Data from an experiment
 Customers of a business
 Graphics objects drawn on the screen
 Cards in a deck

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Sample Problem:
Simple Statistics
Let’s review some code we wrote in chapter 8:
# average4.py
# A program to average a set of numbers
# Illustrates sentinel loop using empty string as sentinel

def main():
sum = 0.0
count = 0
xStr = input("Enter a number (<Enter> to quit) >> ")
while xStr != "":
x = eval(xStr)
sum = sum + x
count = count + 1
xStr = input("Enter a number (<Enter> to quit) >> ")
print("\nThe average of the numbers is", sum / count)

main()

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Sample Problem:
Simple Statistics
 This program allows the user to enter a
sequence of numbers, but the program
itself doesn’t keep track of the numbers
that were entered – it only keeps a
running total.
 Suppose we want to extend the program
to compute not only the mean, but also
the median and standard deviation.

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Sample Problem:
Simple Statistics
 The median is the data value that splits
the data into equal-sized parts.
 For the data 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, the median
is 6, since there are two values greater
than 6 and two values that are smaller.
 One way to determine the median is to
store all the numbers, sort them, and
identify the middle value.

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Sample Problem:
Simple Statistics
 The standard deviation is a measure of how
spread out the data is relative to the mean.
 If the data is tightly clustered around the
mean, then the standard deviation is small. If
the data is more spread out, the standard
deviation is larger.
 The standard deviation is a yardstick to
measure/express how exceptional the data is.

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Sample Problem:
Simple Statistics
 The standard deviation is
 x  x 
2

s i

n 1
 Here x is the mean, xi represents the ith
data value and n is the number of data
values.
 
2
 The expression x  xi is the square of the
“deviation” of an individual item from the
mean.
Python Programming, 2/e 9
Sample Problem:
Simple Statistics
 The numerator is the sum of these
squared “deviations” across all the data.
 Suppose our data was 2, 4, 6, 9, and
13.
 The mean is 6.8
 The numerator of the standard deviation is
 6.8  2    6.8  4    6.8  6    6.8  9    6.8  13
2 2 2 2 2
 149.6
149.6
s  37.4  6.11
5 1
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Sample Problem:
Simple Statistics
 As you can see, calculating the standard
deviation not only requires the mean
(which can’t be calculated until all the
data is entered), but also each
individual data element!
 We need some way to remember these
values as they are entered.

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Applying Lists
 We need a way to store and manipulate
an entire collection of numbers.
 We can’t just use a bunch of variables,
because we don’t know many numbers
there will be.
 What do we need? Some way of
combining an entire collection of values
into one object.

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Lists and Arrays
 Python lists are ordered sequences of items.
For instance, a sequence of n numbers might
be called S:
S = s0, s1, s2, s3, …, sn-1
 Specific values in the sequence can be referenced
using subscripts.
 By using numbers as subscripts, mathematicians can
succinctly summarize computations over items in a
sequence using subscript variables. n 1
s
i 0
i

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Lists and Arrays
 Suppose the sequence is stored in a
variable s. We could write a loop to
calculate the sum of the items in the
sequence like this:
sum = 0
for i in range(n):
sum = sum + s[i]

 Almost all computer languages have a

sequence structure like this, sometimes
called an array.
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Lists and Arrays
 A list or array is a sequence of items where
the entire sequence is referred to by a single
name (i.e. s) and individual items can be
selected by indexing (i.e. s[i]).
 In other programming languages, arrays are
generally a fixed size, meaning that when you
create the array, you have to specify how
many items it can hold.
 Arrays are generally also homogeneous,
meaning they can hold only one data type.
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Lists and Arrays
 Python lists are dynamic. They can
grow and shrink on demand.
 Python lists are also heterogeneous, a
single list can hold arbitrary data types.
 Python lists are mutable sequences of
arbitrary objects.

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List Operations
Operator Meaning
<seq> + <seq> Concatenation
<seq> * <int-expr> Repetition
<seq>[] Indexing
len(<seq>) Length
<seq>[:] Slicing
for <var> in <seq>: Iteration
<expr> in <seq> Membership (Boolean)
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List Operations
 Except for the membership check,
we’ve used these operations before on
strings.
 The membership operation can be used
to see if a certain value appears
anywhere in a sequence.
>>> lst = [1,2,3,4]
>>> 3 in lst
True

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List Operations
 The summing example from earlier can be
written like this:
sum = 0
for x in s:
sum = sum + x
 Unlike strings, lists are mutable:
>>> lst = [1,2,3,4]
>>> lst[3]
4
>>> lst[3] = "Hello“
>>> lst
[1, 2, 3, 'Hello']
>>> lst[2] = 7
>>> lst
[1, 2, 7, 'Hello']

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List Operations
 A list of identical items can be created
using the repetition operator. This
command produces a list containing 50
zeroes:
zeroes = [0] * 50

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List Operations
 Lists are often built up one piece at a
time using append.
nums = []
x = eval(input('Enter a number: '))
while x >= 0:
nums.append(x)
x = eval(input('Enter a number: '))

 Here, nums is being used as an

accumulator, starting out empty, and
each time through the loop a new value
is tacked on.
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 List Operations
Method Meaning

<list>.append(x) Add element x to end of list.

<list>.sort() Sort (order) the list. A comparison function may be passed as a

parameter.
<list>.reverse() Reverse the list.

<list>.index(x) Returns index of first occurrence of x.

<list>.insert(i, x) Insert x into list at index i.

<list>.count(x) Returns the number of occurrences of x in list.

<list>.remove(x) Deletes the first occurrence of x in list.

<list>.pop(i) Deletes the ith element of the list and returns its value.

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List Operations
>>> lst = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9]
>>> lst.append(2)
>>> lst
[3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2]
>>> lst.sort()
>>> lst
[1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9]
>>> lst.reverse()
>>> lst
[9, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1]
>>> lst.index(4)
2
>>> lst.insert(4, "Hello")
>>> lst
[9, 5, 4, 3, 'Hello', 2, 1, 1]
>>> lst.count(1)s
2
>>> lst.remove(1)
>>> lst
[9, 5, 4, 3, 'Hello', 2, 1]
>>> lst.pop(3)
3
>>> lst
[9, 5, 4, 'Hello', 2, 1]
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List Operations
 Most of these methods don’t return a
value – they change the contents of the
list in some way.
 Lists can grow by appending new items,
and shrink when items are deleted.
Individual items or entire slices can be
removed from a list using the del
operator.
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List Operations
 >>> myList=[34, 26, 0, 10]
>>> del myList[1]
>>> myList
[34, 0, 10]
>>> del myList[1:3]
>>> myList
[34]

 del isn’t a list method, but a built-in

operation that can be used on list
items.

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List Operations
 Basic list principles
 A list is a sequence of items stored as a
single object.
 Items in a list can be accessed by indexing,
and sublists can be accessed by slicing.
 Lists are mutable; individual items or entire
slices can be replaced through assignment
statements.

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List Operations
 Lists support a number of convenient and
frequently used methods.
 Lists will grow and shrink as needed.

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Statistics with Lists
 One way we can solve our statistics
problem is to store the data in lists.
 We could then write a series of
functions that take a list of numbers
and calculates the mean, standard
deviation, and median.
 Let’s rewrite our earlier program to use
lists to find the mean.

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Statistics with Lists
 Let’s write a function called
getNumbers that gets numbers from
the user.
 We’ll implement the sentinel loop to get
the numbers.
 An initially empty list is used as an
accumulator to collect the numbers.
 The list is returned once all values have
been entered.

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Statistics with Lists
def getNumbers():
nums = [] # start with an empty list

# sentinel loop to get numbers

xStr = input("Enter a number (<Enter> to quit) >> ")
while xStr != "":
x = eval(xStr)
nums.append(x) # add this value to the list
xStr = input("Enter a number (<Enter> to quit) >> ")
return nums

 Using this code, we can get a list of

numbers from the user with a single
line of code:
data = getNumbers()
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Statistics with Lists
 Now we need a function that will
calculate the mean of the numbers in a
list.
 Input: a list of numbers
 Output: the mean of the input list
 def mean(nums):
sum = 0.0
for num in nums:
sum = sum + num
return sum / len(nums)

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Statistics with Lists
 The next function to tackle is the
standard deviation.
 In order to determine the standard
deviation, we need to know the mean.
 Should we recalculate the mean inside of
stdDev?
 Should the mean be passed as a parameter
to stdDev?

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Statistics with Lists
 Recalculating the mean inside of
stdDev is inefficient if the data set is
large.
 Since our program is outputting both
the mean and the standard deviation,
let’s compute the mean and pass it to
stdDev as a parameter.

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Statistics with Lists
 def stdDev(nums, xbar):
sumDevSq = 0.0
for num in nums:
dev = xbar - num
sumDevSq = sumDevSq + dev * dev
return sqrt(sumDevSq/(len(nums)-1))

 The summation from the formula is

accomplished with a loop and accumulator.
 sumDevSq stores the running sum of the
squares of the deviations.

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Statistics with Lists
 We don’t have a formula to calculate the
median. We’ll need to come up with an
algorithm to pick out the middle value.
 First, we need to arrange the numbers in
ascending order.
 Second, the middle value in the list is the
median.
 If the list has an even length, the median is
the average of the middle two values.

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Statistics with Lists
 Pseudocode -
sort the numbers into ascending order
if the size of the data is odd:
median = the middle value
else:
median = the average of the two middle values
return median

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Statistics with Lists
def median(nums):
nums.sort()
size = len(nums)
midPos = size // 2
if size % 2 == 0:
median = (nums[midPos] + nums[midPos-1]) / 2
else:
median = nums[midPos]
return median

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Statistics with Lists
 With these functions, the main program
is pretty simple!
 def main():
print("This program computes mean, median and standard deviation.")

data = getNumbers()
xbar = mean(data)
std = stdDev(data, xbar)
med = median(data)

print("\nThe mean is", xbar)

print("The standard deviation is", std)
print("The median is", med)

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Statistics with Lists
 Statistical analysis routines might come
in handy some time, so let’s add the
capability to use this code as a module
by adding:
if __name__ == '__main__': main()

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Lists of Objects
 All of the list examples we’ve looked at
so far have involved simple data types
like numbers and strings.
 We can also use lists to store more
complex data types, like our student
information from chapter ten.

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Lists of Objects
 Our grade processing program read
through a file of student grade
information and then printed out
information about the student with the
highest GPA.
 A common operation on data like this is
to sort it, perhaps alphabetically,
perhaps by credit-hours, or even by
GPA. Python Programming, 2/e 41
Lists of Objects
 Let’s write a program that sorts
students according to GPA using our
Sutdent class from the last chapter.
 Get the name of the input file from the user
Read student information into a list
Sort the list by GPA
Get the name of the output file from the user
Write the student information from the list into a file

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Lists of Objects
 Let’s begin with the file processing. The
following code reads through the data file
and creates a list of students.
 def readStudents(filename):
infile = open(filename, 'r')
students = []
for line in infile:
students.append(makeStudent(line))
infile.close()
return students
 We’re using the makeStudent from the gpa
program, so we’ll need to remember to
import it.

Python Programming, 2/e 43

Lists of Objects
 Let’s also write a function to write the list of
students back to a file.
 Each line should contain three pieces of
information, separated by tabs: name, credit
hours, and quality points.
 def writeStudents(students, filename):
# students is a list of Student objects
outfile = open(filename, 'w')
for s in students:
print((s.getName(),s.getHours(),s.getQPoints(),
sep="\t", file=outfile)
outfile.close()

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Lists of Objects
 Using the functions readStudents and
writeStudents, we can convert our
data file into a list of students and then
write them back to a file. All we need to
do now is sort the records by GPA.
 In the statistics program, we used the
sort method to sort a list of numbers.
How does Python sort lists of objects?
Python Programming, 2/e 45
 Lists of Objects
 To make sorting work with our objects, we
need to tell sort how the objects should be
compared.
 Can supply a function to produce the key for
an object using <list>.sort(key=<somefunc>)
 To sort by GPA, we need a function that takes
a Student as parameter and returns the
student's GPA.

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Lists of Objects
 def use_gpa(aStudent):
return aStudent.gpa()
 We can now sort the data by calling
sort with the key function as a keyword
parameter.
 data.sort(key=use_gpa)

Python Programming, 2/e 47

Lists of Objects
 data.sort(key=use_gpa)
 Notice that we didn’t put ()’s after the
function name.
 This is because we don’t want to call
use_gpa, but rather, we want to send
use_gpa to the sort method.

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Lists of Objects
 Actually, defining use_gpa was
unnecessary.
 The gpa method in the Student class is
a function that takes a student as a
parameter (formally, self) and returns
GPA.
 Can use it:
data.sort(key=Student.gpa)
Python Programming, 2/e 49
 Lists of Objects
# gpasort.py def main():
print ("This program sorts student grade information
# A program to sort student information into GPA by GPA")
order.
filename = input("Enter the name of the data file: ")
data = readStudents(filename)
data.sort(Student.gpa)
from gpa import Student, makeStudent
filename = input("Enter a name for the output file: ")
writeStudents(data, filename)
def readStudents(filename):
print("The data has been written to", filename)
infile = open(filename, 'r')
students = []
if __name__ == '__main__':
for line in infile:
main()
students.append(makeStudent(line))
infile.close()
return students

def writeStudents(students, filename):

outfile = open(filename, 'w')
for s in students:
print(s.getName(), s.getHours(), s.getQPoints(),
sep="\t", file=outfile)
outfile.close()

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 In the dieView class from chapter ten,
each object keeps track of seven circles
representing the position of pips on the
face of the die.
 Previously, we used specific instance
variables to keep track of each, pip1,
pip2, pip3, …

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 What happens if we try to store the circle
objects using a list?
 In the previous program, the pips were
created like this:
self.pip1 = self.__makePip(cx, cy)
 __makePip is a local method of the
DieView class that creates a circle centered
at the position given by its parameters.

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 One approach is to start with an empty
list of pips and build up the list one pip
at a time.
 pips = []
pips.append(self.__makePip(cx-offset,cy-offset)
pips.append(self.__makePip(cx-offset,cy)
…
self.pips = pips

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 An even more straightforward approach is to
create the list directly.
 self.pips = [self.__makePip(cx-offset,cy-offset),
self.__makePip(cx-offset,cy),
…
self.__makePip(cx+offset,cy+offset)
]

 Python is smart enough to know that this

object is continued over a number of lines,
and waits for the ‘]’.
 Listing objects like this, one per line, makes it
much easier to read.
Python Programming, 2/e 54
Designing with
Lists and Classes
 Putting our pips into a list makes many
actions simpler to perform.
 To blank out the die by setting all the
pips to the background color:
for pip in self.pips:
pip.setFill(self.background)

 This cut our previous code from seven

lines to two!

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 We can turn the pips back on using the
pips list. Our original code looked like
this:
 self.pip1.setFill(self.foreground)
self.pip4.setFill(self.foreground)
self.pip7.setFill(self.foreground)

 Into this:
 self.pips[0].setFill(self.foreground)
self.pips[3].setFill(self.foreground)
self.pips[6].setFill(self.foreground)

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 Here’s an even easier way to access the
same methods:
for i in [0,3,6]:
self.pips[i].setFill(self.foreground)

 We can take advantage of this

approach by keeping a list of which pips
to activate!
 Loop through pips and turn them all off
Determine the list of pip indexes to turn on
Loop through the list of indexes - turn on those pips

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
for pip in self.pips:
self.pip.setFill(self.background)
if value == 1:
on = [3]
elif value == 2:
on = [0,6]
elif value == 3:
on = [0,3,6]
elif value == 4:
on = [0,2,4,6]
elif value == 5:
on = [0,2,3,4,6]
else:
on = [0,1,2,3,4,5,6]
for i in on:
self.pips[i].setFill(self.foreground)

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 We can do even better!
 The correct set of pips is determined by
value. We can make this process table-
driven instead.
 We can use a list where each item on the list
is itself a list of pip indexes.
 For example, the item in position 3 should be
the list [0,3,6] since these are the pips
that must be turned on to show a value of 3.

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 Here’s the table-driven code:
onTable = [ [], [3], [2,4], [2,3,4], [0,2,4,6],
[0,2,3,4,6], [0,1,2,4,5,6] ]

for pip in self.pips:

self.pip.setFill(self.background)

on = onTable[value]
for i in on:
self.pips[i].setFill(self.foreground)

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 onTable = [ [], [3], [2,4], [2,3,4], [0,2,4,6], [0,2,3,4,6], [0,1,2,4,5,6] ]

for pip in self.pips:

self.pip.setFill(self.background)

on = onTable[value]
for i in on:
self.pips[i].setFill(self.foreground)

 The table is padded with ‘[]’ in the 0 position,

since it shouldn’t ever be used.
 The onTable will remain unchanged through
the life of a dieView, so it would make
sense to store this table in the constructor
and save it in an instance variable.
Python Programming, 2/e 61
Designing with
Lists and Classes
# dieview2.py # Create 7 circles for standard pip locations
# A widget for displaying the value of a die. self.pips = [ self.__makePip(cx-offset, cy-offset),
# This version uses lists to simplify keeping track of self.__makePip(cx-offset, cy),
pips. self.__makePip(cx-offset, cy+offset),
self.__makePip(cx, cy),
class DieView: self.__makePip(cx+offset, cy-offset),
""" DieView is a widget that displays a graphical self.__makePip(cx+offset, cy),
representation self.__makePip(cx+offset, cy+offset) ]
of a standard six-sided die."""
# Create a table for which pips are on for each
def __init__(self, win, center, size): value
"""Create a view of a die, e.g.: self.onTable = [ [], [3], [2,4], [2,3,4],
d1 = GDie(myWin, Point(40,50), 20) [0,2,4,6], [0,2,3,4,6], [0,1,2,4,5,6] ]
creates a die centered at (40,50) having sides
of length 20.""" self.setValue(1)

# first define some standard values def __makePip(self, x, y):

self.win = win """Internal helper method to draw a pip at (x,y)"""
self.background = "white" # color of die face pip = Circle(Point(x,y), self.psize)
self.foreground = "black" # color of the pips pip.setFill(self.background)
self.psize = 0.1 * size # radius of each pip pip.setOutline(self.background)
hsize = size / 2.0 # half of size pip.draw(self.win)
offset = 0.6 * hsize # distance from center to return pip
outer pips
def setValue(self, value):
# create a square for the face """ Set this die to display value."""
cx, cy = center.getX(), center.getY() # Turn all the pips off
p1 = Point(cx-hsize, cy-hsize) for pip in self.pips:
p2 = Point(cx+hsize, cy+hsize) pip.setFill(self.background)
rect = Rectangle(p1,p2)
rect.draw(win) # Turn the appropriate pips back on
rect.setFill(self.background) for i in self.onTable[value]:
self.pips[i].setFill(self.foreground)

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Designing with
Lists and Classes
 Lastly, this example showcases the
advantages of encapsulation.
 We have improved the implementation of the
dieView class, but we have not changed the set
of methods it supports.
 We can substitute this new version of the class
without having to modify any other code!
 Encapsulation allows us to build complex software
systems as a set of “pluggable modules.”

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Case Study: Python Calculator
 The new dieView class shows how lists can
be used effectively as instance variables of
objects.
 Our pips list and onTable contain circles and
lists, respectively, which are themselves
objects.
 We can view a program itself as a collection
of data structures (collections and objects)
and a set of algorithms that operate on those
data structures.
Python Programming, 2/e 64
A Calculator as an Object
 Let’s develop a program that implements a
Python calculator.
 Our calculator will have buttons for
 The ten digits (0-9)
 A decimal point (.)
 Four operations (+,-,*,/)
 A few special keys
 ‘C’ to clear the display
 ‘<-’ to backspace in the display
 ‘=’ to do the calculation

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A Calculator as an Object

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A Calculator as an Object
 We can take a simple approach to
performing the calculations. As buttons
are pressed, they show up in the
display, and are evaluated and
displayed when the = is pressed.
 We can divide the functioning of the
calculator into two parts: creating the
interface and interacting with the user.
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Constructing the Interface
 First, we create a graphics window.
 The coordinates were chosen to simplify the layout of
the buttons.
 In the last line, the window object is stored in an
instance variable so that other methods can refer to
it.
 def __init__(self):
# create the window for the calculator
win = GraphWin("calculator")
win.setCoords(0,0,6,7)
win.setBackground("slategray")
self.win = win

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Constructing the Interface
 Our next step is to create the buttons,
reusing the button class.
 # create list of buttons
# start with all the standard sized buttons
# bSpecs gives center coords and label of buttons
bSpecs = [(2,1,'0'), (3,1,'.'),
(1,2,'1'), (2,2,'2'), (3,2,'3'), (4,2,'+'), (5,2,'-'),
(1,3,'4'), (2,3,'5'), (3,3,'6'), (4,3,'*'), (5,3,'/'),
(1,4,'7'), (2,4,'8'), (3,4,'9'), (4,4,'<-'),(5,4,'C')]
self.buttons = []
for cx,cy,label in bSpecs:
self.buttons.append(Button(self.win,Point(cx,cy),.75,.75,label))
# create the larger = button
self.buttons.append(Button(self.win, Point(4.5,1), 1.75, .75, "="))
# activate all buttons
for b in self.buttons:
b.activate()

 bspecs contains a list of button

specifications, including the center point of
the button and its label.

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Constructing the Interface
 Each specification is a tuple.
 A tuple looks like a list but uses ‘()’
rather than ‘[]’.
 Tuples are sequences that are
immutable.

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Constructing the Interface
 Conceptually, each iteration of the loop starts
with an assignment:
(cx,cy,label)=<next item from bSpecs>
 Each item in bSpecs is also a tuple.
 When a tuple of variables is used on the left
side of an assignment, the corresponding
components of the tuple on the right side are
unpacked into the variables on the left side.
 The first time through it’s as if we had:
cx,cy,label = 2,1,”0”
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Constructing the Interface
 Each time through the loop, another tuple
from bSpecs is unpacked into the variables
in the loop heading.
 These values are then used to create a
Button that is appended to the list of
buttons.
 Creating the display is simple – it’s just a
rectangle with some text centered on it. We
need to save the text object as an instance
variable so its contents can be accessed and
changed.
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Constructing the Interface
 Here’s the code to create the display
 bg = Rectangle(Point(.5,5.5), Point(5.5,6.5))
bg.setFill('white')
bg.draw(self.win)
text = Text(Point(3,6), "")
text.draw(self.win)
text.setFace("courier")
text.setStyle("bold")
text.setSize(16)
self.display = text

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Processing Buttons
 Now that the interface is drawn, we
need a method to get it running.
 We’ll use an event loop that waits for a
button to be clicked and then processes
that button.
 def run(self):
# Infinite 'event loop' to process button clicks.
while True:
key = self.getButton()
self.processButton(key)

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Processing Buttons
 We continue getting mouse clicks until a
button is clicked.
 To determine whether a button has been
clicked, we loop through the list of buttons
and check each one.
 def getButton(self):
# Waits for a button to be clicked and
# returns the label of
# the button that was clicked.
while True:
p = self.win.getMouse()
for b in self.buttons:
if b.clicked(p):
return b.getLabel() # method exit

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Processing Buttons
 Having the buttons in a list like this is a
big win. A for loop is used to look at
each button in turn.
 If the clicked point p turns out to be in
one of the buttons, the label of the
button is returned, providing an exit
from the otherwise infinite loop.

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Processing Buttons
 The last step is to update the display of
the calculator according to which button
was clicked.
 A digit or operator is appended to the
display. If key contains the label of the
button, and text contains the current
contents of the display, the code is:
self.display.setText(text+key)

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Processing Buttons
 The clear key blanks the display:
self.display.setText("")

 The backspace key strips off one

character:
self.display.setText(text[:-1])

 The equal key causes the expression to

be evaluated and the result displayed.

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Processing Buttons
 try:
result = eval(text)
except:
result = 'ERROR'
self.display.setText(str(result))

 Exception handling is necessary here to catch

run-time errors if the expression being
evaluated isn’t a legal Python expression. If
there’s an error, the program will display
ERROR rather than crash.

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