Mechanical Behaviour of Engineering Materials

MM0908

Paper – V: Open Elective Paper

First Semester M. Tech.

Dr. Debdulal Das

Department of Metallurgy and Materials
Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur
July 2019
 Syllabus

Introduction to deformation and failure

Concept of stresses and strains; Engineering and true stresses and strains;
Module-I Different types of loading and temperatures encountered in engineering
applications; Mechanical behaviour and failure of metals, alloys, ceramics,
polymer and composites materials

Elastic deformation
Module-II State of stress and strain; Principal stress and strain; elastic stress-strain
relation; Elastic behaviour of engineering materials

Plastic deformation
Module-III Hydrostatic and deviatoric stress; Octahedral stress; Effective stress and
strain; Yield criteria; Mohr circle; Plastic stress-strain relation;

Mechanisms of plastic deformation

Module- IV Crystal defects; Dislocation; Geometrical and statistical dislocations;
Dislocation multiplication; Dislocation reactions; Slip and twinning; Critical
resolved shear stress; Strain hardening; Hall-Petch relationship
 Syllabus Contd.

Fracture
Module-V Fracture in engineering materials; Modes and mechanisms of fractures;
Linear elastic fracture mechanisms; Elastic-plastic fracture mechanisms;
Measurement of fracture toughness

Fatigue
Module-VI Types of dynamic loading; S-N curves; Classification of fatigue; Fatigue of
engineering materials; Mechanisms of fatigue failure; Fatigue life
prediction

Creep
Module-VII Time dependent deformation; Different stages of creep; Creep and stress
rupture; Creep mechanisms and maps; Design of materials for high
temperature applications
Text Books
 Introduction

 We can apply forces and moments on a body.

 Force(s) can be applied on a body in two ways:
Surface forces (by direct contact of one body with another)
Body forces (force exerted without direct contact, usually throughout the volume of
the body).
Hammering involves surface forces, while gravitational pull is a body force.

 The force can be:

Point force (if the area of application is small compared to the overall area of the body)
Distributed load (loading is over an area)

The force or moment experienced by a member may arise from a ‘support’. A support
which prevents translation in a direction gives rise to force in that direction. If on the
other hand rotation is prevented, then this results in a moment.
 Introduction
 Components and devices in service have to satisfy certain ‘performance parameters’ (load
to borne, temperature of operation, environment of operation, etc.).
 To satisfactorily perform under a given service conditions, the material should possess
certain properties. And, we would like to avoid failure# of these components/devices.
 Before we design and test components, we would like to know about the material properties
(on which we can base our design). Also, often it is difficult to test entire components (like
a gear wheel) or a system of components (like a gear wheel assembly).
 Usually, special ‘test rigs’ are designed to test a ‘full’ components or an assembly of
components.
 Hence, often we rely on test data on ‘model’ samples, with ‘ideal’ geometries. These tests
include: hardness test, uniaxial tension test, bending test (3-point, 4-point), torsion test,
hardness test, creep test, etc.
 The challenge is to use this data obtained from model tests, for the design of components.
The component may have a complicated geometry and which experiences a state of stress,
which is considerably different from that in the model test.

 In the design of structures the (i) strength (), (ii) deformation () and (iii) stability are taken into account.
# Failure implies deviation from desired performance.
 Introduction

 In general failure can be avoided by:

(i) a better design of the system (such that the component experiences a lower ‘degree of
loading’) and/or
(ii) better design of the component.

Further, the improvement in the component design could involve a better:

(i) geometrical design and/or

(ii) material design (i.e. choice of material).

 Another way of looking at ways to avoid material failure is:

 Protect the material (paint to avoid corrosion, cool the material if ‘heating’ is leading to failure)
 Make a ‘better’ material (design a material to withstand high temperatures, if creep is leading to failure)
 Have a ‘sacrificial strategy’ (have a sacrificial anode which will corrode in preference to the material of interest, have a
shield which will burn up during re-entry of a space vehicle thus protecting the interior)

 Most of the engineering failures (~70%) happen due to fatigue and corrosion.
What kind of mechanical behaviour phenomena does one have to understand?

 Phenomenologically mechanical behaviour can be understood as in the flow diagram

below  (1) Elasticity, (2) Plasticity, (3) Fracture, (4) Fatigue, (5) Creep.
 Multiple mechanisms may be associated with these phenomena (e.g. creep can occur by
diffusion, grain boundary sliding etc.).
 These phenomena may lead to the failure of a material#.
 Many of these phenomena may occur concurrently in a material.

Mechanical Behaviour
Pushing a spring Release
Regains
Original length Original length

Elasticity Recoverable deformation

A phenomenological classification
(not a mechanistic one)

Plasticity Permanent deformation

Bending of rod of metal

Fracture Propagation of cracks in a material*

Crack Propagation
Crack Propagation
Fatigue Oscillatory loading

Creep Elongation at constant load (/constant stress) at ‘high’ temperatures

# Failure implies deviation from desired performance. * Eventually can lead to breaking of material.
There seems to be many ‘phenomenological’ possibilities of deformation (elasticity,
plasticity, creep, ...). In a given situation which one will be operative?

 Each of the phenomenological effects (let us consider creep) may have multiple mechanisms
which may give rise to the effect (in creep, grain boundary sliding and diffusion are two of
the possible mechanisms). The ‘effect’ in the current context could be an observable like
‘irreversible deformation’ (i.e., plastic deformation).

 When there are two (or more) competing mechanisms are available to respond to a stimulus
(say applied load which results in a stress state in the material), then the mechanism which operates at a
lower magnitude of the stimulus (stress in the current situation) operates (in preference to other competing
mechanisms).

 Material variables (like grain size, segregation, crystal structure, etc.) and process
variable/loading conditions (like temperature, strain rate) will play a key role in determining
the mechanism which will be operative.
 Classification of Mechanical Behaviour

 The classification presented is for ‘convenience’ and many details have been ignored.
 In the uniaxial tension test (loading of specimen in uniaxial tension), dislocation ‘activity’ starts well below
the yield stress (as we shall see later)→ plasticity in the microscale (in the ‘elastic’ region!!).
 Creep also leads to ‘plastic deformation’!
 Fracture in ductile material also involves plasticity at the crack tip level.
 During fatigue loading (loading oscillating in load/stress, usually below the yield stress),
dislocation activity can lead to surface intrusions and extrusions (plastic deformation at the
microscopic level).
 Plastic deformation is volume conserving, while elastic deformation (in general) is not.
 Hydrostatic states of stress tend to cause volume changes, while shear stress tend to cause
shape changes.

 On the application of load/constraint to a material, in may respond in many ways. The

response could be reversible (elastic deformation) and or irreversible (plastic deformation &
fracture).
 The response to the load could be ‘immediate’* or could occur over a period of time.
 In some cases (creep and fatigue) the damage may accumulate over a period of time before
the component/sample ‘fails’.
 What is ‘failure’?

 From a ‘common sense’ perspective, fracture seems to be the ‘real’ failure.

 With a little ‘stretch’ we can think of plastic deformation as also ‘failure’.
 But, how can elastic deformation constitute ‘failure’?
 Let us consider a diving spring board (in a swimming pool).
 To get a good dive one needs a good jump. For this the board should provide a good ‘spring-
back’.
 If the compliance of the board is too much the board will bend and the swimmer will just fall
into the pool. The board after some oscillations will return to the approximately horizontal
position (i.e. the process is elastic but the board has failed to deliever the desired
performance).
 However, in most circumstances permanent change in the shape of the component (i.e.
involving plastic deformation) or fracture is considered as failure.
 Such a failure by plastic deformation and/or fracture can occur due to phenomenological
processes like creep and fatigue.
 In ductile materials, plastic deformation usually precedes fracture.

In general If acceptable deflection is exceeded Material is elastic but  > c

Failure If Yield stress is exceeded Plastic deformation is initiated ( > y)

If fracture stress is exceeded The material fractures ( > f)

 Mechanisms can lead to ‘failure’
If failure is considered as deterioration in desired performance*- which could involve changes
in properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.

Mechanisms / Methods by which a Material can FAIL

Elastic deformation**
Bond distortion
Creep Chemical / Physical
Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture degradation
deformation Cracks
Microstructural
Twinning changes
Wear
Slip Dislocations Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Etc. Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth
* Beyond a certain limit
Particle coarsening ...and more.
** Some may wonder as to how elastic deformation can be construed as failure.