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Unit 2: Chemical Principles and Applications Ii Module 1: The Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

This document discusses organic chemistry concepts including: 1. Carbon has the unique ability to form chains and rings through catenation and can form multiple bonds including single, double, and triple bonds. 2. Organic compounds are studied based on their functional groups which group similar compounds into homologous series that differ by a CH2 unit. 3. Carbon can expand its valency through hybridization including sp, sp2, and sp3 to form various bonds and molecular geometries seen in important organic molecules and polymers.

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73 views

Unit 2: Chemical Principles and Applications Ii Module 1: The Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

This document discusses organic chemistry concepts including: 1. Carbon has the unique ability to form chains and rings through catenation and can form multiple bonds including single, double, and triple bonds. 2. Organic compounds are studied based on their functional groups which group similar compounds into homologous series that differ by a CH2 unit. 3. Carbon can expand its valency through hybridization including sp, sp2, and sp3 to form various bonds and molecular geometries seen in important organic molecules and polymers.

Uploaded by

victoria
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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UNIT 2: CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES

AND APPLICATIONS II MODULE


1: THE CHEMISTRY OF
CARBON COMPOUNDS
Structure and Formulae
Learning Objectives

Explain the occurrence of carbon compounds with


straight chains, branched chains and rings
Explain the meaning of the term ‘homologous series’;
Distinguish among empirical, molecular, and
structural formulae
Determine formulae from experimental data
Write structural formulae
Apply the IUPAC rules to named organic compounds
Define, structural isomerism;
Explain stereoisomerism
Determine the possible isomers from given molecular
formulae
What is Organic Chemistry ?
Organic chemistry is the study of compounds based on
the rings and chains of the element Carbon
What is special about the element Carbon ?
1. Carbon has the ability to catenate
This means that carbon atoms has the ability to join to each
other to form stable chains or ring compounds

What is special about the element Carbon ?

Carbon does this better than any other element in the periodic
table, produces a LARGE range of hydrocarbons and other
homologous series of unlimited size and complexity
e.g. Fullerenes are organic compounds which are derived from
C60
To be able to catenate an element must have a valency ≥ 2
What is special about the element Carbon ?
2. Carbon can from straight chains, branched chains or rings
What is special about the element
Carbon ?
3. Carbon has the ability to form multiple bonds
It can from single bonds, double bonds and triple bonds
What is special about the element
Carbon ?
4.Carbon can forms table bonds to other elements .
For example
• Hydrogen - hydrocarbons
• Oxygen – alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids ,esters
• Nitrogen –amines
• Halides-halogenoalkanes
NB Organic chemistry excludes carbon compounds such as
• Carbonates e.g. CaCO3
• Cyanides e.g. KCN
• Sulphides e.g. CS2
• Oxides e.g. CO and CO2
Organic Compounds Examples
• Organic Compounds include :
Starch
Polyester
Cotton
Insulin
Sucrose
Polypropylene
Rubber
Proteins
Fats
Example -
Recombinant DNA
Technology
• Organic compounds can
be derived from both living
and non living systems
e.g. DNA and non-living
systems
Example -Recombinant
DNA Technology
• What is hybridization ?
Hybridization happens when atomic orbitals mix
to form a new atomic orbital. The new orbital
can hold the same total number of electrons as
the old ones. The properties and energy of the
new, hybridized orbital are an 'average' of the
original unhybridized orbitals.
• Electronic Configuration of Carbon
1s2 2s2 2p2
• Carbon (ground state/lowest energy state)
What compound shows that Carbon has a
valency of 2? CO
Having a valency of 2 means it has the ability to
share 2 bonds

Hybridization
Hybridization
• How can carbon show a valency of 4 ?
Carbon shows the valency of 4 by
promoting one electron from the 2s orbital
to the empty 2pz orbital .
This promotion requires energy
The four unfilled C atomic orbitals can be
thought of as being mixed so that each has
¼ s character and ¾ p character.
Therefore these mixed orbitals are called
sp3 orbitals
• In ethene , we now 3 orbitals
available in which one singly
occupied 2s orbital and two
of the three singly occupied
2p orbitals in each carbon
atom hybridise to make three
sp2 orbitals
• These orbitals are composed
of one s and two p orbitals
• These sp2 orbitals form ‫ס‬
bonds which are arranged in
a plane making a bond angle
of approximately 120 o with
each other
• The remaining 2p orbitals
from each carbon atom
Hybridization overlap sideways to from a ‫ת‬
bond
Resonance

Resonance is where the structure of a


compound is a single form which is “in
between” two or more extreme structures
• Benzene – C6H6
Benzene forms a hexagon with the three
localised sp2 hybrid orbitals
.This leaves a single p orbital on each of the
six carbon atoms. These orbitals overlap
sideways to form a delocalised system of ‫ת‬
bonds . The six electrons involved can move
freely around the ring
Homologous Series
Organic chemistry can be separated into families called
homologous series based on specific functional groups.
Each homologous series has its own distinct set of
properties/characteristics which makes them easier to
study
Homologous series : A group made up of closely related
compounds with the same functional group which
differ from each other by a constant change in the
molecular composition between 2 consecutive
members
Homologous Series
Each homologous series has the following characteristics ::
• A general formula which applies to all members in a
particular series
• Each successive member increases by the unit CH2
• Chemical properties are very similar due to the same
functional group
• The physical properties change i.e graduation in physical
properties as the relative mass increases As the members
change from gas to liquid to solid the melting points and
boiling points increase
Functional Group
• A unique reactive group of atoms which give specific
chemical properties to an organic compound and is
use to distinguish molecules of one class to another .
• E.g –OH (hydroxyl group in alcohols )
• Handout on comparing different homologous series
Types of formulae of organic
compounds
• Molecular formula :-Total number of each type of atom in
a molecule

• Empirical Formula:- Simplest whole number ratio of


atoms present in 1 mole of a compound
E.g. C6H12O6
C2H6O
Types of formulae of organic compounds
• Structural formula :- A formula which
shows each type of atom present , the
total number of atoms present as well
as the correct order in which all the
atoms are arranged within the molecule
There are three types of structural
formula :
• A displayed or full structural formula
• A condensed structural formula
• Line- angle formula or skeletal formula
Types of
Formulae of
Organic
Compounds
• Condensed Structural
formula :A formula which
shows each type of atom
present , the total number
of atoms present and the
order in which the atoms
arranged
Brackets can be included
for groups of atoms that are
repeated with a subscript to
indicate the number of
times the group is repeated.
Types of Formula For Organic
Compounds
• Full Structural Formula or Displayed Formula :- A
formula which shows every atom and every bond in the
molecule and their exact positions in the molecule
• E.g.
• C2H6O
• CH3CH2OH
• CH3COOH
• CH3COOCH2CH3
Types of Formula For Organic
Compounds
• Line-angle formula or skeletal formula
• With more complex molecules a normal structural formula can be cumbersome
• Line-angle formulas are used because they are easier and faster to draw than
condensed structural formulas
• In this type of structural formula carbon atoms are not drawn period
• A line represents a carbon –carbon bond
• A vertex represents a carbon atom
• Also hydrogen atoms which are not drawn when they are connected to carbon.
However hydrogen atoms are drawn when they are bonded to another atom for
example as in OH
• A line ending in space represents a CH3 group
• Simply add to each carbon atom enough hydrogen atoms to make a total of 4
bonds
Types of Formula for Organic Compounds
• Examples will be done on the board
IUPAC
• Also will be done on the board

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