Physical Layer

By
Benay Kumar Ray,
Central University of South Bihar
 Introduction
 One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data
in the form of electromagnetic signals across a transmission
medium.
 Whether you are collecting numerical statistics from another
computer, sending animated pictures from a workstation, you
are working with the transmission of data across network
connections.
 Generally, the data usable to a person or application are not in
a form that can be transmitted over a network.
 For example, a photograph must first be changed to a form
that transmission media can accept.
 Transmission media work by conducting energy along a
physical path.
 For transmission, data needs to be changed to signals.
 Introduction: Contd.
NOTE
 Communication at the physical layer means exchanging
signals.
 Data need to be transmitted and received, but the media have
to change data to signals.
 Both data and the signals that represent them can be either
analog or digital in form.
 Analog and Digital Data
 Data can be analog or digital.
 The term analog data refers to information that is continuous
 For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands
gives information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are
continuous.
 Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
 A digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will change
suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
 Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on
continuous values.
 When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air which can be captured by a
microphone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal.

 Digital data take on discrete values.

 For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of 0s and 1s.
 They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for
transmission across a medium.
 Analog and Digital Signal
 Signals can be either analog or digital.
 An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
 An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over time.
 In other words, there are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal
 As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes
an infinite number of values along its path.

 The curve representing the analog signal passes through an infinite number
of points.
 Analog and Digital Signal: Contd.
 A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level
for some period of time and then abruptly changes to another constant level
 A digital signal, can have only a limited number of defined values.
 Each value are as simple as 1 and 0.

 The vertical lines of the digital signal, demonstrate the sudden jump that the
signal makes from value to value.
 Periodic and Nonperiodic
 A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called
a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods.
 The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
 A non periodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that
repeats over time.

NOTE
 Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non-periodic.
Data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and non
periodic digital signals.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
 A Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into
simpler signals.
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
Sine Wave
 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
 When we visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the
course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a continuous, rolling flow.

 Figure shows a sine wave, where each cycle consists of a single arc above
the time axis followed by a single arc below it.
A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak
amplitude, the frequency, and the phase.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Peak Amplitude
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries.
 In other words the peak amplitude is the maximum value or strength of the signal over
time
 For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Period and Frequency
 The Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to
complete 1 cycle.
 Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s.
 Note that period and frequency are just one characteristic defined in two
ways.

NOTE
 Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.
 Period is formally expressed in seconds.
 Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz), (which is cycle per second)
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Period and Frequency
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Period and Frequency

 Q1.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Period and Frequency
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Period and Frequency
NOTE
 Frequency can also be defined as the rate of change of a signal with respect
to time.
 Change of a signal in a short span of time means high frequency.
 Change of a signal over a long span of time means low frequency.

For example 40-Hz signal has one-half the frequency of an 80-Hz signal.
It completes 1 cycle in twice the time of the 80-Hz signal
Hence time required to change 80 Hz signal is lesser compared to 40 Hz signal.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
 If a signal does not change at all, it never completes a cycle, so its frequency is 0 Hz.
 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 when a signal changes instantaneously (Signal jumps from one level to another in no time),
its period is zero; since frequency is the inverse of period, in this case, the frequency is 1/0,
or infinite
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Phase
 The term phase, or phase shift, describes the position of the waveform
relative to time 0.
 If we think of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward
along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Phase : NOTE

Another
 A sineway to look
wave at the
with phase of
a phase is in
0°terms of at
starts shift or offset.
time 0 with Wea can
zerosay that
amplitude. The
 amplitude
A sine waveiswith a phase of 0° is not shifted.
increasing.
 A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak amplitude. The
 A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by cycle.
amplitude is decreasing.
 Note that the signal does not really exist before time 0.
 A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The
 amplitude
A sine waveiswith
decreasing.
a phase of 180° is shifted to the left by cycle.
 Note that the signal does not really exist before time 0.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Phase
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Wavelength
 The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.

NOTE:
 Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium.
 However, since period and frequency are related to each other, if we
represent wavelength by λ, propagation speed by c (speed of light), and
frequency by f, we get
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Wavelength
NOTE:
 The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium
and on the frequency of the signal.
 For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 × 108 m/s.
 That speed is lower in air and even lower in cable.
 The wavelength is normally measured in micrometers (microns) instead of
meters.
 For example, the wavelength of red light (frequency = 4 × 1014) in air is:

 In a coaxial or fiber-optic cable, however, the wavelength is shorter (0.5 μm)

(ANSWER WHY)
 Because the propagation speed in the cable is decreased.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Time and Frequency Domains
 A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude,
frequency, and phase.
 We have been showing a sine wave by using what is called a
time-domain plot.
 The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with
respect to time (it is an amplitude-versus-time plot).
 To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we
can use what is called a frequency-domain plot.
 A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak value
and the frequency.
 Changes of amplitude during one period are not shown.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Time and Frequency Domains

NOTE:
 The advantage of the frequency domain is that we can immediately see the
values of the frequency and peak amplitude.
 A complete sine wave is represented by one spike.
 The position of the spike shows the frequency; its height shows the peak
amplitude.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Time and Frequency Domains
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Composite Signals
 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications.
 We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many
simple sine waves.
 In the early 1900s, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste
Fourier showed that any composite signal is actually a
combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.
According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a
combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Composite Signals
NOTE
 A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a series of
simple sine waves with discrete frequencies (frequencies that
have integer values (1, 2, 3, and so on).)

 A nonperiodic composite signal can be decomposed into a

combination of an infinite number of simple sine waves with
continuous frequencies, frequencies that have real values.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals
s Figure shows a
periodic composite
signal with frequency f.

 Figure shows the result of

decomposing the above
signal in both the time
and frequency domains.
 The amplitude of the sine
wave with frequency f is
almost the same as the
peak amplitude of the
composite signal.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals

 The amplitude of the sine

wave with frequency 3f is
one-third of that of the
first.
 The amplitude of the sine
wave with frequency 9f is
one-ninth of the first.

 The frequency of the sine wave with frequency f is the same as the frequency of
the composite signal; it is called the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic.
 The sine wave with frequency 3f has a frequency of 3 times the fundamental
frequency; it is called the third harmonic.
 The third sine wave with frequency 9f has a frequency of 9 times the fundamental
frequency; it is called the ninth harmonic.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals

 Note that the frequency decomposition of the signal is discrete; it has frequencies f,
3f, and 9f.
 Because f is an integral number, 3f and 9f are also integral numbers.
 There are no frequencies such as 1.2f or 2.6f. The frequency domain of a periodic
composite signal is always made of discrete spikes.
 ANALOG SIGNALS:
Composite Signals (non Periodic)

 In a time-domain representation of this composite signal, there are an infinite number

of simple sine frequencies.
 For example, Although the number of frequencies in a human voice is infinite,
the range is limited.
 A normal human being can create a continuous range of frequencies between 0
and 4 kHz.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals

Note
 The frequency decomposition of the signal yields a continuous curve.
 There are an infinite number of frequencies between 0.0 and 4000.0 (real values).
 To find the amplitude related to frequency f, we draw a vertical line at f to intersect
the envelope curve.
 The height of the vertical line is the amplitude of the corresponding frequency.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals
Bandwidth
 The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is
its bandwidth.
 The bandwidth is normally a difference between two numbers.
 For example, if a composite signal contains frequencies between 1000
and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 − 1000, or 4000.

 The figure depicts two composite signals, one periodic and the other nonperiodic.
 The bandwidth of the periodic signal contains all integer frequencies between 1000
and 5000 (1000, 1001, 1002, . . .).
 The bandwidth of the non periodic signals has the same range, but the frequencies
are continuous.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals
Bandwidth (Example Question)
 If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of
100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum,
assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals
Bandwidth (Example Question)
 A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz.
What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all
frequencies of the same amplitude.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS: Composite Signals
Bandwidth (Example Question)
 A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle
frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme
frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.
 Digital Signals
 In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be
represented by a digital signal.
 For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
 A digital signal can have more than two levels.
 In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

• Figure shows two signals, one

with two levels and the other
with four.
• We send 1 bit per level in part a
of the figure and 2 bits per level
in part b of the figure.
• In general, if a signal has L
levels, each level needs log2L
bits.
• For this reason, we can send
log24 = 2 bits in part b.
 Digital Signals
Example
1. A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?

Sol: We calculate the number of bits from the following formula. Each signal
level is represented by 3 bits.
Number of bits per level = log28 = 3

2. A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?

Sol: We calculate the number of bits by using the formula. Each signal level is
represented by 3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The number of
bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For this
example, 4 bits can represent one level.
 Digital Signals
Bit Rate
 Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not
appropriate characteristics.
 Another term—bit rate (instead of frequency)—is used to describe digital
signals.
 The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second
(bps).

Figure shows the bit rate

for two signals.
 Digital Signals
Bit Rate : Example
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100
pages per second. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Assume a page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line and one character requires 8 bits.