Weathering and Soil

Earth - Chapter 6
 Earth’s external processes
Weathering – the physical breakdown
(disintegration) and chemical alteration
(decomposition) or rock at or near
Earth’s surface
Mass wasting – the transfer of rock and
soil downslope under the influence of
gravity
Weathering (Disintegration & Decomposition) Accentuates
Differences in Rock Types
 Earth’s external processes

Erosion – the physical removal of material by

Two types of weathering

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Physical_and_Chemical_Weathering
 Weathering
Four types of mechanical weathering
– Frost wedging – alternate freezing and thawing of
water in fractures and cracks promotes the
disintegration of rocks
– Unloading – exfoliation of igneous and metamorphic
rocks at the Earth’s surface due to a reduction in
confining pressure
– Thermal expansion – alternate expansion and
contraction due to heating and cooling
– Biological activity – disintegration resulting from plants
and animals
 Frost wedging
alternate freezing
and thawing of water
in fractures and
cracks promotes the
disintegration of
rocks
 Unloading – exfoliation of igneous & metamorphic
rocks at the earth’s surface due to a reduction in
confining pressure

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Sheeting
Thermal expansion
alternate expansion
and contraction
due to heating and
cooling
Not all fractures
are created by
thermal
processes. These
“joints” near
Moab, Utah, are
cracks produced
by tectonic forces
generated during
mountain
building.
 Biological
activity
disintegration
resulting from
plants and
animals
 Weathering
Chemical Weathering
• Breaks down rock components and
internal structures of minerals
• Most important agent involved in
chemical weathering is water (responsible
for transport of ions and molecules
involved in chemical processes)
 Weathering
Major processes of chemical weathering
• Dissolution
– Aided by small amounts of acid in the
water
– Soluble ions are retained in the
underground water supply
 Dissolution
Halite (Rock Salt)
Dissolving in Water.
Sodium & Chloride Ions
Are “Attacked” by Polar
Water Molecules. Once
Removed, the Na & Cl
ions are Surrounded &
Held by Numerous
Water Molecules
 The Effects of “Acid Rain” – Partially Dissolved
Limestone Figure, Damaged Trees in Great Smoky Mtns.
 Weathering
Major processes of chemical weathering
• Oxidation
– Any chemical reaction in which a
compound or radical loses electrons
– Important in decomposing
ferromagnesian minerals
 A very
common
example of
oxidation is
the reaction of
iron with
oxygen to
create iron
oxide (rust).
Similar
oxidation of
iron in rock-
forming
minerals
produces a
red color
Similar oxidation of iron in rock-forming minerals produces a
red color on outcrop
Acid mine drainage results when pyrite (FeS2) is oxidized &
releases sulfur that combines with H2O to form sulfuric acid
 Weathering
Major processes of chemical weathering
• Hydrolysis
– The reaction of any substance with
water
– Hydrogen ion attacks and replaces
other positive ions
 Weathering
Alterations caused by chemical
weathering
• Decomposition of unstable minerals
• Generation or retention of materials that
are stable
• Physical changes such as the rounding of
corners or edges
Generation of more stable minerals
from weathering of igneous rocks
 Rates of Weathering
Factors affecting weathering
• Surface area
– The smaller the particles to be
weathered, the more surface area is
exposed to be weathered and the more
rapidly the weathering proceeds
Mechanical Weathering (Physical Breakdown of
Rocks) Produces Smaller & Smaller Pieces that
Increase the Surface Area Available for
Chemical Attack
 Rates of Weathering
Factors affecting weathering
• Rock characteristics
– Rocks containing calcite (marble and
limestone) readily dissolve in weakly
acidic solutions
– Silicate minerals weather in the same
order as their order of crystallization
 These 2 tombstones were erected at roughly the same
time, but the marble stone on the right weathered much
more rapidly
Silicate Minerals Weather in the Same Order in
Which They Form: i.e. the Highest Temperature
Silicates Are the Least Resistant to Weathering
 Weathering
Others factors affecting weathering
• Climate
– Temperature and moisture are the most crucial factors
– Chemical weathering is most effective in areas of warm,
moist climates
 Weathering
Differential weathering
• Masses of rock do not weather uniformly due to
regional and local factors
• Results in many unusual and spectacular rock
formations and landforms
 Differential
weathering
controlled by
jointing patterns
 Joint-controlled weathering
in igneous rocks

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SmartFigures-Spheroidal_Weathering
Successive shells are loosened as the weathering process
continues to penetrate deeper into the rock
 Soil
Soil = combination of mineral and organic
mater, water, and air
• Rock and mineral fragments produced by
weathering (regolith) that supports the growth
of plants
• Humus (decayed animal and plant remains) is a
small, but essential, component
Soil is an ESSENTIAL resource that supports plant life,
which in turn supports animal life
Composition of a “good” soil
 Soil
Factors controlling soil formation
• Parent material
– Residual soil – parent material is the
underlying bedrock
– Transported soil – forms in place on parent
material that has been carried from elsewhere
and deposited
 Soil
Factors controlling soil formation
• Time
– Amount of time for soil formation varies for
different soils depending on geologic and
climatic conditions
• Climate
– Most influential control of soil formation
– Key factors are temperature and
precipitation
 Soil
Factors controlling soil formation
• Plants and animals
– Organisms influence the soil’s physical and
chemical properties
– Also furnish organic matter to the soil
• Slope (Topography)
– Steep slopes often have poorly developed soils
– Optimum terrain is a flat-to-undulating
upland surface
Variations in soil development
Soils in Alaska’s Denali Nat. Park are produced by intense acid
leaching of conifer humus shed from the overlying trees
 Soil
The soil profile
• Soil forming processes operate from the
surface downward
• Vertical differences are called horizons –
zones or layers of soil
 Soil
The soil profile
• O horizon – organic matter
• A horizon – organic and mineral matter
– High biological activity
– Together the O and A horizons make up the
topsoil
• E horizon – little organic matter
– Zone of eluviation and leaching
 Soil
The soil profile
• B horizon – zone of accumulation
• C horizon – partially altered parent
material
The O, A, E, and B horizons together are
called the solum, or “true soil”
 An
idealized
soil profile
Soil Profiles: A = well developed soil in South Dakota; B
= indistinct soil horizons in soil from Puerto Rico

A B
 Soil
Classifying soils
• Variations in soil formation over time and
distances has led to a great variety of
recognized soil types
• Groups have been established using
common characteristics
• In the United States a system is used
called the soil taxonomy
 Soil
Classifying soils
• Soil taxonomy
– Emphasis is placed on physical and chemical
properties
– Six hierarchical categories exist, ranging from
order (12 broad catagories) to series (>19,000)
– Descriptive names are derived from Latin and
Greek
– 12 basic soil orders are recognized
 Distribution of
the 12 soil orders
in the western
hemisphere
Distribution of the 12 soil orders in the eastern
hemisphere
 An example of soil order Oxisol (rain forest iron &
aluminum soils). Although these provide an excellent
foundation for trees, they are NOT good for farming
Angkor Wat, Cambodia, is built of bricks cut from oxisols
in the region. When exposed to the sun (trees removed)
this soil hardens like stone, thus it is not very good for
growing crops.
 Soil
Soil erosion
• Part of the natural recycling of earth
materials
• Natural rates of soil erosion depend on
– Soil characteristics
– Climate
– Slope
– Type of vegetation
 Soil
Soil erosion
• In many regions the rate of soil erosion is
significantly greater than the rate of soil
formation
• Sedimentation and chemical pollution
– Related to excessive soil erosion
– Occasionally soil particles are contaminated
with pesticides
Exposed soil particles respond to rain
drops

Soil
dislodged
by splash
erosion is
more
easily
moved by
sheet
erosion.
Evidence of soil erosion in Wisconsin

1 mm of
soil eroded
from a
single acre
of land
amounts to
about 5
tons of soil
lost
Gully erosion is severe in this poorly protected
oxisol soil in Columbia
Soil Erosion Due to Drought and Excessive
Farming Was Common During the 1930’s