Resident Physics Lectures

Radiography Geometry
Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD

School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology & Imaging
 Learning Objectives
 At the end of this lecture, the student is expected to:

 Extend geometry of shadow formation by light to x-ray image

formation.
 Define the terms SID, SOD, IOD and their affects on X-ray image

formation.
 Understand how distortions are produced in x-ray images, and how to

reduce through geometrical considerations.

 Understand 5-geometrical considerations that produces detailed and

sharp radiographs.
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 Introduction
 There two methods of image acquisition in radiography:

 Projection imaging,

o A single image is created for a 3D body, which

o Is a “shadow” of body section in a particular direction (integration

thro’ the body in the direction of x-ray beam).

 Tomography imaging,

o A series of images are generated, one from each slice of a 3D object in a

particular direction (axial, coronal, sagittal).

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 Projection Imaging
 Convectional radiography

 Is a transmission imaging procedure,

where
 X-rays emerge from the x-ray tube

placed on one side of the pt.'s body and

passes thro’ it as shown in this Fig. and
 Are detected on the other side of the

pt. by the screen-film detector.

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 Projection Radiography
 Fig.

 Shows complete

components of the x-
ray imaging system
for the projection
radiography.

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 Projection Radiography
 Projection imaging

 Produces a 2-D image of pt.’s 3-D anatomy, and

 Hence, tissue information spanning the direction

of x-ray beam are lumped together on the

radiograph, for instance
 A single chest radiograph superposes the images

(shadows) of tissues (lungs, spine, ribs, and the

heart) located on the path of x-ray beam and
requires careful interpretation.

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 Tomography Radiography
 In tomography procedures,

 Image of each slice is obtained by taking projection images along

different directions {(a) axial, (b) coronal, (c) sagittal}, and

 Then, images are reconstructed from projections (back projection, or

Radon transform).

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 Projection Radiography

Typical projection
Typical arrangement for radiograph
projection imaging

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 Geometry of Projection Radiography
 The primary effect of projection radiography

 Is to record an image of a 3D object (the pt.) in 2D, and

 As mentioned before, results in superposition of the anatomy

along each ray, which

 Leads to a number of effects that need to be considered in:

o Design of equipment,

o Production of the images and

o Interpretation.

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 Geometric Principles
 An x-ray image

 Is a shadow picture of an object placed in the path of x-ray beam;

i.e. between the tube anode and the film or other IR, and
 Appearance of image recorded is influenced by relative positions of

the object and film as well as the direction of the beam, and
 Hence, radiologists need to be familiar with the basic principles of

shadow formation , to aid them in interpretation of radiographs.

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 Comparison of x-rays and Light
 Since x-rays are EM waves like light,

 They form shadows in a similar way as light form shadows, but

 The analogy between light and x-rays shadow formation is not

perfect since
o All objects are transparent to x-rays to some extend, and

o Scattering presents greater problems in radiography than in optics,

but

 The good news is that the same geometrical laws of shadow formation

apply to both light and x-rays.

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 Shadow Formation
 Fig. A beside shows

 Light beam from a point source, L falling on a

white card board or screen, C, but

 With an opaque object, O interposed

between the light source and the card, where

 A shadow, I of the object is formed on the
I
surface of the card board as shown.

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 Shadow Formation
 Notice from Fig. in previous slide that

 Shadow cast is naturally enlarged because the object is not in

contact with the card, and

 The degree of enlargement varies according to the relative distances

of the object from the:

o Card or image called object-image distance, (OID) and

o Light source call source-object distance, (SOD).

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 Shadow Formation
 Image magnification, M gives the law governing the size of the

shadow is given by:

SI DI
M 
S O DO
 where

 SO is the size of the object,

 SI is the size of the shadow (x-ray image),

 DO the distance from source-to-object (SOD), and

 DI is the distance from source-to-image (SID).

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 Image Magnification
 Magnification of the image
 Occurs because the beam diverges from focal spot to the image
plane as shown in this Fig.

Notice from magnification Eqn., that

M
Is largest when the object is close
to the focal spot,
Decreases with distance from the
focal spot, and
Approaches a value of 1 as the
object approaches the image plane.

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 Shadow Formation
 Degree of sharpness of a shadow

depends on:
 Size of light source, and

 Position of object between light

source and the card (image), i.e.

o whether nearer to or farther from

one or the other as illustrated by

these images.

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 Shadow Formation
 For extended light source (not point
source )
 The shadows cast are not perfectly
sharp , but
o Form a penumbra ( B to D)

 Each point in the source of light casts its

own shadow of the object, and
 Each of these overlapping shadows is
slightly displaced from the others
o Producing a blurred image.

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 Shadow Formation
 Note that

 The shadow formation may also differ depending on the

angle that the object makes with the incident light rays, and
 This effect make the image shape to deviate from the true

shape of the object, which

 Is called distortion.

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 Effect of changing the size of the
Source on Image formation
 The conditions required to produce the
sharpest, and truest shadow of the object
are:
 Source of light should be small

o i.e. point source (small focal spot) should

be used ideally.
o Compare Fig. A and C.

 Source of light should be as far from

the object as practical.
o Compare Fig. B and C.
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Effect of changing the relative positions of
source, object, and card.
 The conditions required to produce sharpest

and truest shadow of the object are:

 Film should be as close to the object as possible

(Compare Fig. B and D).

 Light rays should be directed arly to film

(compare Fig. A and E).

 Planes of object and film should be parallel

(compare Figure A and F).

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 Radiographic Shadows
 Principles of shadow formation

 Are applied in radiography in order to ensure satisfactory

sharpness and minimize distortion in the radiographic image,

but

 A certain degree of distortion will still exist (naturally) in

every radiograph, because

 Some parts will always be farther from the film than others.

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 Shadow Formation
 Note that

 Images of those parts

of pt. body far away

from the film are
magnified more than
those ones closer to
film,

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 Radiographic Shadows
 The shape of image

 Should always be similar to that of an object ideally, i.e. there

should be no distortion of shape;

 For example, a circular object should be produced as a circular

shadow, but
 It is possible that spatial (position) feature can be distorted, as

illustrated in the next slides.

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 Geometrical Distortion - shape
 Notice in this Fig.

 That two circular objects can

be rendered as either:
o Two circles (Fig. A) or

o Overlapping circles or

figure-eight shape Fig. B).

 Depending on direction of

rays.

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 Geometrical Distortion - shape
 Fig.

 Shows a tilted object

projected at a range of
angles, which
 Illustrate that increasing

degree of foreshortening
as the angle increases.
Effect of angulations on projected
length of an angled object

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 Geometrical Distortion - position
 Note that

 All objects are magnified by an

amount related to OID, where

 The further away from OID, the larger

the object appears, and

 In Fig., all objects A, B and C are same

size, but they appear progressively

Effect of depth of objects on
larger due to differences in position. their projected sizes

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 Shadow Distortion
 Distortion cannot be eliminated completely but

 By the use of appropriate source-film distance (SID), and

 It can be minimized until a point which the radiographic image

is not objectionable, but

 Considerable training and experience is required for Radiographer

to correctly choose the geometrical variables to image a given

section of interest.

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 Application to Radiography
 Application of geometric principles of shadow formation to

radiography leads to five general rules to be considered:

1. Focal spot (source where x-rays are produced);
2. Source-Body distance (SOD);
3. Source-Film distance (SID);
4. Film, and
5. Central Ray.

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 Focal Spot
 X-ray tube focal spot
 Is where x-rays are produced, and

 Its size should be as small (should be a point source ideally) as allowed

by other considerations (e.g. heat loading), because
 A large size focal spot,
o Is able to withstand large loads (heat production), but

o Cannot delineate as much details as a small-focus tube i.e. poor

resolution.

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 Focal Spot
 When a large focal spot is used, then
 The heat loading of the tube is optimized but compromises
image resolution, and
 Image resolution (details) is improved by using a long source-
film distance (SID), but
 It is advantageous to use smallest focal spot permissible for
exposures required.

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 Source-Body Distance
 Distance between anode (source) and body (SOD)

 Should always be as great as is practical, and

 Long SODs should always be used in imaging of thick body

parts, in order to
 Minimize unsharpness of body structures farthest from the film.

 At long SODs also,

 Radiographic definition/shapness is improved and

 The image is more nearly the actual size of the object.

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 Source-Film Distance
 When source-film distance (SID)

 Is decreased from a large value to a small value,

 Distortion of the image is observed to increase, and

 Is particularly evident at the edges of the body where the

distortion is greatest.

 Thus,

 The SID should be kept as large as it is permissible.

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 Object-Film Distance (OID)
 The film

 Should be placed as close as possible to body part being imaged, but

 In practice, film (in its cassette) is placed in contact with the body.

 As OID is increased from zero (i.e. contact),

 The image becomes larger, i.e. magnified, but

 The definition or sharpness begins to degrade.

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 Central Ray
 The central ray

 Should be as nearly -lar to the film as much as possible to

preserve spatial relations, and

 The central ray is used for positioning and

 Is produced from a lamp (visible light).

 As far as the shape of the body will allow,

 The plane of maximum interest (i.e. section of body being imaged)

should be parallel to the plane of the film.

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 Central Ray production
Focal Spot
 Generally Filter
X-ray beam
include filter
& light Light beam

Lamp
Mirror

X-ray & light

beams
CR

Shutters (only
1 set shown)

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 Central Ray production
 Central ray directed to the midpoint of the grid

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