UNIT – I

Introduction, Physical Geology, Minerology

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY CE4
UNIT - 1
 UNIT - 1
CONTENTS:
Introduction:
 Branches of Geology
 Importance of geology from civil engineering
point
 Importance of Physical geology, Petrology and
Structural geology
 UNIT - 1
 CONTENTS ( continue):
Physical Geology:
 Weathering process
 Weathering process with reference to dams,
reservoirs and tunnels
 Weathering of common rock like “Granite”
 UNIT - 1
CONTENTS ( continue):
Minerology:
 Definition and Importance of study of minerals
 Different methods of study of minerals
 Physical properties of minerals
 Role of study of physical properties of minerals in
the identification of minerals
 Study of physical properties of common rock
forming minerals
 INTRODUCTION
Geology is the science of the earth
 It is an application of basic science like
mathematics, physics, chemistry to the problems
presented by the earth.
 INTRODUCTION
Geology deals with
Different aspects of the earth as a whole :
 Origin, age and history of the earth
 Composition of the earth,
 Interior Structure of the earth
 Evolution and modifications of rivers, mountains
etc., and
 Materials making up the earth.
 MAIN AND ALLIED BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY:
Geology is a vast subject and hence it is subdivided:
Main branches Allied branches
 Physical geology Engineering geology
 Mineralogy Mining geology
 Petrology Geophysics
 Structural geology Geohydrology
 Historical geology (stratigraphy) Geochemistry
 Paleontology
 Economic geology
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
 Physical geology:
 Concerned with the work of natural processes
which bring about changes upon the earth’s
surface.
 Petrology:
 The study of different kinds of rocks
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
 Mineralogy:
 The study of minerals, its composition &
properties is called mineralogy.

 Structural Geology:
 It includes the study of the structures of the
rocks in the earth’s crust.
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
 Stratigraphy:
 A branch of geology which studies rock layers
(strata) and layering (stratification).

 Palaeontology:
 It deals with the study of fossils.
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
 Historical Geology:
 The study of Stratigraphy and paleontology is
included under historical geology.
 Economic Geology:
 Deals with the study of minerals of economic
importance. OR
 Concerned with earth materials that can be
used for economic and/or industrial
purposes. ”
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
 Mining Geology:
 It is concerned with the study of application of
geology to mining engineering.
 Engineering geology:
 It includes the study of application of geology to
civil engineering.
 Importance of geology from civil engineering point
CIVIL ENGINEER AIM:
 Safety, Stability, Economy and Life of the
structures that they construct.
Importance of geology from civil engineering point
 WHY THIS HAPPEND  SOLUTION
 POOR SUBSURFACE  STUDY OF AREA IN
CONDITION VIEW OF SOIL-

 LACK OF AWERNASE SUBSOIL NATURE

FOR CONSTRUCTION,
 WITHOUT PROPER
SAFETY AND
STUDY OF
REMEADY MEASURES
DEFORMABILTY.
 Importance of geology from civil engineering point
 Ignoring of the geological studies lead to failure of
civil constructions in the past is as follows:
 With Relation to Dams:
 Dams were failure due to adverse geological
conditions.
Ex: St. Francis dam of California, Austin dam of Texas.
 Construction cost became very high.
Ex: Hales bar dam, Camarassa dam (Spain).
 Importance of geology from civil engineering point
With Reference to Reservoirs:
 Quick silting of reservoirs, leakage of stored water
Ex. Jerome reservoir of Idaho, Hondo reservoir of
New Mexico.
With Reference to Tunnels:
 Ignoring the competence ,structures, porosity and
permeability of rocks posed serious problems
Ex: Ramganga diversion tunnel (Himalayas)
 Importance of geology from civil engineering point
With Reference to Bridges:
 Improper study of geological conditions lead to the
failure of a bridge
 Near Cornwall (Canada).
With Reference to Roads and Railways:
 Due to effect of ignoring geological conditions:
Ex: The landslides/ boulder falls along some
sections of Bor Ghat on the Bombay-Pune line
 SCOPE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

 Deals with the application of geology for a safe and

economic design and construction of a civil
engineering projects
 SCOPE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
The basic objective of engineering geology are two
fold:
 Enables a civil engineer to understand engineering
application of certain conditions related to the area
of construction, which are essentially geological in
nature.
 SCOPE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
The basic objective of engineering geology are two
fold (continue):
 Enables a geologist to understand the nature of
geological information that is absolutely essential
for the safe design and construction of a civil
engineering project.
Topographical maps
PLANNING
Hydrological Maps
Geological Maps
Construction
 The engineer responsible for the quality control of
construction materials will derive enormous benefit
from his geological background of the nature
material such as sand, gravel, crushed rocks and
nature of region like coastal belts, seismic zones etc.
CONSTRUCTION
 Importance of physical geology, petrology and
structural geology
 Physical Geology:
 From the civil engineering point of view, the effect
of weathering and understanding of geological
work of a river and its features are most important.
 Weathering adversely affects the colour,
appearance, strength and durability of rocks.
 Proper understanding of geological work of a river
will lead to their better utilization.
 Importance of physical geology, petrology and
structural geology
 Mineralogy:
 Minerals constitute the rocks and ores of the earth.
 So, the properties of rocks depend on the properties
and composition of their constituent minerals.
Ex., Quartzite and Marble resemble one another
 Quartzite is very hard and durable
 Marble disintegrates and decomposes easily on
weathering.
 Importance of physical geology, petrology and
structural geology
Petrology:
 The composition and textural characters of rocks
primarily contribute to their inherent strength and
durability.
 From the civil engineering point of view, rocks based
on their suitability can be used as foundation and
construction of dams, tunnels etc.
 Importance of physical geology, petrology and
structural geology
Structural Geology:
 The geological structures modify the inherent
physical characters of rocks rendering them more
suitable or unsuitable for civil engineering purposes.
 Ex: The upstream dip sedimentary rocks are more
suitable for dam site than
the downstream dip sedimentary rocks
 Weathering process
GEOLOGICAL AGENTS:
The natural forces which are responsible for the
visible changes on the earth’s surface
Based on the origin:
 1)Exogenous (or) epigene geological agents
 2)Endogenous (or) hypogene geological agents.
 Weathering process
 EXOGENOUS OR EPIGENE GEOLOGICAL AGENTS
 These agents originate on the earth’s surface, work
slowly and steadily and erose topographic
irregularities.
 Their geological work is systematic i.e; erosion
followed by transportation and deposition.
 Weathering process
EXOGENOUS OR EPIGENE GEOLOGICAL AGENTS:
 Removal of irregularities such as elevations, like hills
and highlands, and depressions on the earth’s
surface makes plain land.
 Rivers, wind, glaciers, tides and waves of the sea are
typical examples of the exogenous group of
geological agent
 Weathering process
ENDOGENOUS (OR) HYPOGENE GEOLOGICAL
AGENTS:
 Originate below the earth’s surface, work
suddenly and create topographic irregularities.
Ex: Volcanoes, earthquakes, groundwater and
tectonic forces.
 Volcanic activity creates mountains etc. on the
earth’s surface.
 Ex. Alphine - Himalayas.
 Weathering process

 ENDOGENOUS (OR) HYPOGENE GEOLOGICAL

AGENTS:
 Groundwater produces karst topography
 Tectonic forces results in the formation of faults
and folds of the geological strata.
 Earthquakes are responsible for creating some
new features
 Weathering process
EROSION:
 The process of removal of weathered material
from the place of it’s formation upto short
distances is called erosion.
DENUDATION:
 The process of exposing fresh country rocks to the
surface due to the removal of their overlying
weathered material
 Weathering process

WEATHERING:

 The deteriorating effect of weather, climate (or)

atmospheric agencies on rocks

 Due to the processes of mechanical disintegration

and chemical decomposition.
 Weathering process

PHYSICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR

WEATHERING:
 Wind, rivers, glaciers, dashing waves and tides,
gravity, exfoliation, frost wedging, frost heaving and
miscellaneous etc. are the physical factors
responsible for weathering.
 Wind –disintegration:
 Weathering process
PHYSICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (continue):
 Abrasion---breakdown of rocks along the course of
wind.
 Attrition----break down of particles carried by the
wind.
 Deflation---powerful blast of wind blows carried
loose material.
 Weathering process
PHYSICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (continue):
GLACIERS:
 Erosion or disintegration of rocks
 Due to abrasion, quarrying and frost wedging.
DASHING WAVES AND TIDES OF THE SEA:
 Both disintegration and decompositon
 Due to Hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition and
corrosion (i.e, solvent action of sea water ).
 Weathering process
PHYSICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (continue):
GRAVITY:
 Water falls, landslides, avalanches or meteorites
gain greater momentum
 Disintegration of rocks takes place.
 Weathering process
PHYSICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (continue):
EXFOLIATION (EX=PRE-EXISTING, FOLIO=LAYERS)
 Extensive temperature changes in day time and night
time
 Disintegration of the rocks.
EX: In kara-qum desert, the temparature in day time is
700 -800 C and in night time drops to -100 C.
 Weathering process
CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING:
Water:
 Without water decomposition is impossible.
 water directly affects rocks by:
 Dissolution,
 Leaching,
 Hydration and
 Hydrolysis.
 Weathering process
CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR WEATHERING
DISSOLUTION:
 When river water contains CO2 in the dissolved
condition traverses a limestone terrain,
limestone dissolved and the size of the rock reduces.

 Ca CO3 + H2 O + CO2 → Ca (HCO3 )2

(Limestone) (water with (Calcium bicarbonate which
dissolved CO2) is soluble in water)
 Weathering process
CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
LEACHING:
 Water is the most powerful corroding and
leaching agent.
 In a tropical climate, most of the minerals are
decayed and leached due to prolonged contact
with water.
EX: Laterite.
 Weathering process
 CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
HYDRATION:
 Hydration is the most powerful means of attack by
water.
 In Hydration, decomposition of minerals takes place
by water or hydroxyl molecules are injected into
the molecular structures of minerals.
 Weathering process
 CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
 It affects more than 80 % of the minerals of an
average rock.
K2 Al2 O3 6SiO2 + H2 O+ CO2 → K2 CO3 + Al2 O3 2SiO2
2H2 O + 4 SiO2
(Orthoclase feldspar) (Hydration) (Kaolin) (Sand)
 Feldspars on hydration decomposes to clays.
 Weathering process
 CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
 Ferromagnesium minerals also undergo hydration.
 Anhydrous pyroxenes are changed over to
amphiboles,
 Amphiboles changed over to biotite, And
 Biotite changed over to chlorite.
 Weathering process
 CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
HYDROLYSIS:
In some cases of decomposition of minerals,
instead of the water molecule, only the hydrogen
part of the water enters in to the mineral structure.
 This is called hydrolysis.
 Weathering process

CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR

WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
 EX:
 KAlSi3 O8 + H+ → HAlSi3 O8 + K+
(Orthoclase (Hydrogen (Silisic acid Potassium ion
feldspar) ion from water) like structure) insolution
 Weathering process
 CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
HYDROLYSIS:
 Instead of the water molecule, only the hydrogen
part of the water enters in to the mineral structure.
 This is called hydrolysis.
 EX: Dry rocks are stronger than those saturated
with water.
 Weathering process
 CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
 ATMOSPHERIC GASES: Carbon dioxide, oxygen or
nitrogen participates in the weathering of rocks.
 CARBONDIOXIDE: Chemical combination with
carbon dioxide is called carbonation.
 Ex: dissolution of limestone and the production
of clay from feldspars.
 Weathering process
CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
OXYGEN: Chemical combination with oxygen is
called oxidation.
 In ferruginous minerals, colour changes due to
oxidation
NITROGEN: Due to bacteria and lightning, the
nitrogen 0f atmosphere transforms in to nitric
acid which is a good dissolving and powerful
oxidizing agent.
 Weathering process
 CHEMICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
WEATHERING (CONTINUE):
PYRITE: Pyrite, which is a very common accessory
mineral in many rocks, easily undergoes weathering.
VOLATILES OF VOLCANOES: Volatiles of volcanoes
when combine with atmospheric water results in
the formation of corrosive liquids which
decompose the rocks.
 Weathering process
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS RESPONCIBLE FOR
WEATHRING (continue):
 Plants and trees, animals man and even bacteria
also helps in the disintegration and
decomposition of rocks.
PLANTS AND TREES:
 The roots of plants grows into cracks of rocks
and widen them.
 Thus they disintegrate the rocks.
 Weathering process
 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS RESPONCIBLE FOR
WEATHRING (continue):
ANIMALS:
 Some animals make burrows in the ground and
thus disintegrates the rocks.
 The decay of dead of animals releases toxic
products which causes decomposition of rocks.
 Weathering process
 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS RESPONCIBLE FOR
WEATHRING (continue):
BACTERIA:
 Bacteria helps in the decay of organic material
 Also produces humic, carbonic, and other acids
 which helps in the decomposition of rocks.
 Weathering process
 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS RESPONCIBLE FOR
WEATHRING (continue):
MAN:
 Man makes quarrying and blastings for
construction material, for tunneling purposes
 Results in the disintegration of rocks.
IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING WITH REFERENCE TO
DAMS, RESERVOIRS, AND TUNNELS:
 Reduces the strength, durability, and good
appearance of rocks.
 Not good from the point of civil engineering.
 Intensive grouting or digging the weathered zone
and refilling with concrete is necessary.
 The cost of construction increases.
IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING WITH REFERENCE TO
DAMS, RESERVOIRS, AND TUNNELS:
 Lose their strength, durability and good
appearance
 Not suitable to be used as construction material
 Due to sea waves, weathering results as coastal
erosion which creates problem to civil engineers.
IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING WITH REFERENCE TO
DAMS, RESERVOIRS, AND TUNNELS:
 Weathered rocks are not suitable for tunneling.
 Enormous loose soils formed by weathering
along steep slopes results in landslides
 In case of reservoirs, a thoroughly weathered
zone in the upstream side creates silting
problem.
 WEATHERING RESPONSE ON GRANITE ROCK:

Granite is one of the most abundant

rocks on the earth.
 Ordinary granite rock contains feldspar and
quartz as essential minerals and
muscovite, biotite and hornblende as common
accessory minerals.
 The effect of weathering mineral-wise is as follows:
 Decomposition in Granite

Sl Mineral Chemical Weathering Products

.N composi Effect of
o tion Weatheri
ng
1 Feldspars K2 O Goes into Soluble
A.Orthocl solution as material
ase carbonate,
(or Al2 O3 chloride etc. Clay,
Microcli 6SiO2 Hydrated to form soluble
 Decomposition in Granite
S. Mineral Chemical Weathering Effect Products of
No composition Weathering
1 Feldspar 3Na2 O Goes into solution as Soluble
B.Oligoc carbonate, chloride material
lase CaO Forms carbonate, Soluble
(Plagiocl which is soluble in material
ase) water containing
carbon dioxide
4Al2 O3 2O Forms hydrous Clay,
SiO2 aluminium silicate, soluble
with the liberation of material
soluble silica
 Decomposition in Granite

Sl Mineral Chemical Weathering Products of

N composit Effect Weathering
o ion
2 Quartz SiO2 Remains Sand grains
undecompos
ed
3 Muscovite 2H2 O Remains Mica flakes
(whitemica) K2 O undecompos
 Decomposition in Granite
S. Min Chemical Weathering Effect Products of
No eral composition Weathering
4 Bioti H2 O, K2 O Goes into solution as Water soluble
te carbonate, chloride . material
(blac 2(Mg, Fe)O Goes into solution as Soluble and
k carbonate, Chloride, colouring
mica iron carbonate oxidizes material
) to hematite
Al2 O3 3SiO2 Forms hydrous Clay, soluble
aluminium silicate, material
with the liberation of
soluble silica
 Decomposition in Granite

S. Mineral Chemical Weathering Products of

N composition Effect Weathering
o
5 Hornblende (Ca,Mg, Fe, Al)7-8 Decomposes Weathering
(Al Si)8 O22 (OH)2 similar to products are
Biotite similar as in
Biotite
 Decomposition in Granite

 Due to decomposition, granite produces different

kinds of material as follows:
 Unaltered minerals: Quartz forms sand grains, and
muscovite forms mica flakes.
 Insoluble residues: The resulting hydrous aluminium
silicates forms clays, and Iron oxides are the
colouring matter of rocks.
 Decomposition in Granite

 Soluble substances: Salts formed from substances

like potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron
and silica.
 The soluble material enters the rivers and
 some of them deposited at an early stage in
their seaward journey due to evaporation
Decomposition in Granite

 others are deposited in the ocean.

 The insoluble products remain for some time in
the same place but
 Ultimately carried to the rivers and then to sea.
STUDY OF MINERALS
 ?
 Definition
•It is naturally occurring solid homogeneous
substance which has definite chemical composition
and definite atomic structure which is formed by
inorganic processes in nature is called as mineral.
•Elements that occur naturally are also considered
minerals.
 Minerals:

 Quartz, Ice, Snow, Biotite, Diamond, Serpentine.

 Not Minerals:

 Opal, CO2, Granite, Volcanic Gas, Oil, Amber.

 IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF MINERALS
 The civil engineers need to know the properties
of rocks precisely to use different rocks for any
required purpose.
 All properties of rocks depend on the
properties of their constituent minerals.
 So, the strength, durability and appearance of
rocks can be assessed only with the knowledge
of rock-forming minerals.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF STUDY OF
MINERALS:
 Common methods of study and identification of
minerals are based on :
 1) physical properties
 2) chemical composition
 3) optical properties
 4) X-ray analysis.
STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
 Depends on chemical composition and atomic
structure of the mineral.
 Since every mineral invariably possesses its own
specific chemical composition and atomic
structure.
 Every mineral should posses its own set of
physical properties irrespective of their
occurrence, size, shape, association etc.
STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (continue):
EX: Galena exhibits:
 Lead grey colour,
 Bright metallic shine,
 Opaque character,
 High density,
 Tendency to break easily along three different
directions and
 Scratched by a knife but not by a fingernail.
 STUDY OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
 By chemical analysis, we can know the chemical
composition of a mineral.

 EX: if the composition of an unknown mineral is

found to be lead sulphide (pbs), then the mineral
must be only Galena.
STUDY OF OPTICAL PROPERTIES:
 The thin sections of minerals are made by fixing
fine powder of the mineral over glass slides by
using Canada balsam.
 These slides are studied under a petrological
microscope.
STUDY OF OPTICAL PROPERTIES (continue):
 The properties of minerals like colour, cleavage,
shape and pleochroism are studied under
polarized light
 whereas the properties like interference colours,
their order, optic sign, twinning, alteration etc.
are studied under crossed nicols.
 STUDY OF OPTICAL PROPERTIES (continue):
EX: The optical properties distinctive of quartz
are:
 Anhedral shape, clear, colour less,
 No cleavage, transparent,
 Non pleochroic,
 Grey or yellow interference colours,
 Positive elongation etc.
STUDY OF X-RAY ANALYSIS:
 X-Ray analysis makes use of the definite atomic
structure of the mineral.
 When x-rays are allowed to fall on a
photographic plate, the resulting photograph
shows a series of spots or lines in symmetrical
pattern.
STUDY OF X-RAY ANALYSIS (continue):
 From measurements made on the photograph,
the distance between the atoms and the actual
arrangement of the atoms in the crystal can be
detected.
 Thus the accurate identification of minerals is
possible by this method.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 Minerals have distinguishing physical properties.
 That in most cases can be used to determine the
identity of the mineral.
FORM:
 Form is also called habit or structure.
 It represents the common mode of occurance
of a mineral in nature.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 FORM (continue):
 It depends on the atomic structure of the
mineral, mode of formation, cleavage
character etc
 Some minerals consistently exhibit the same
form such that the mineral can be identified
easily.
 Ex: Lamellar form (thin layer) –Mica
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 FORM (continue):
 Tabular form(layer with uniform thickness) –Feldspars
 Crystalline form – Garnet
 Some times same mineral may exhibit different forms
(or)
 Different minerals may exhibit the same form.
 In such cases the mineral identification should be
done along with the other physical properties.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 COLOUR: Colour of the mineral is due to
composition.
 But sometimes it is imparted by the presence
of trace elements, inclusions, atomic structural
aberrations, etc.
 Metallic minerals keep up greater consistency
whereas rock-forming minerals may or may not
keep up consistency.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 COLOUR
 Based on the colour variation character ,
minerals are classified into:
 Idiochromatic minerals: Minerals which
have a characteristic and constant colour.
 Allochromatic minerals: Minerals for which
colour is variable.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 COLOUR:
 In some minerals, colour depends on the crystal
structure and bond type instead of composition
 For ex: Diamond and Graphite have the same
composition.
 Diamond is colourlesss and transparent, while
Graphite is black and opaque.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Streak
the color of a mineral’s powder
* Rub a mineral and check its color
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Streak
 Rock- forming minerals , Most of the transparent
and translucent minerals have white streak.
 Minerals with a Non-metallic luster have a
streak lighter than their colour and minerals
with Metallic luster have a streak generally
darker than their colour.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Streak
 In case of a few metallic minerals, looking
similar, streak of the mineral helps to identify
the mineral.
 Ex: Magnetite and chromite resemble one
another in form, colour, shining, density etc.
 Magnetite gives black streak whereas chromite
gives brown streak.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
LUSTRE:
The way a mineral shines
Based on quality of shine:
 Metallic luster
 Nonmetallic luster
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Metallic luster
 Shines like polished metal
 Galena, Pyrite, Chalcopyrite
Submetallic luster
 The amount of shining is less
 Hematite, Chromite, Magnetite,
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 The intensity of light depends upon the quantity
of reflected light.
 Based on a decreasing amount of shining, luster
may be described as :
 Splendent ( Ex: galena ),
 Shining (Ex: pyrite ),
 Glimmering or glistering (Ex: chromite or
hematite ), and
 Dull luster.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 Nonmetallic luster
*vitreous – shining glass (ambar)
*pearly – like a pearl (mica)
*resinous – like wax (sphalerite)
*greasy, oily – (graphite)
*dull, earthy – (kaolinite, limonite)
*brilliant – (diamond)
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 FRACTURE
The nature of the randomly broken surface of a
mineral.
 Usually compact, amorphous and cryptocrystalline
minerals show conchoidal or subconchoidal
fractures.
 It is not related to the atomic structure of the
mineral.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
FRACTURE ( continue):
Based on the nature of a broken surface,
 Even fracture ( plain and smooth)
 Uneven fracture (rough or irregular)
 Hackly fracture ( the end of a broken stick)
 Conchoidal fracture (smooth and curved)
 Sub conchoidal fracture (the curved surface is less
prominent)
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 CLEAVAGE :
The definite direction or plane along which a mineral
tends to break easily
 It is related to the atomic structure of the mineral.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

CLEAVAGE (continue):
 Only crystalline minerals can have cleavage but not
present in all crystalline minerals.
 Amorphous minerals do not show cleavage
 Ex: Limonite and bauxite
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

CLEAVAGE (continue):Based on atomic structure:

 One set of cleavage (Ex: mica, talc) or
 Two sets of cleavages (Ex: feldspars, amphiboles) or
 Three sets of cleavages (Ex: calcite, galena) or
 Four sets of cleavages (Ex: flurote) or
 Six sets of cleavages (Ex: sphalerite) or
 No cleavage (Ex: Quartz, Olivine, garnet).
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
CLEAVAGE (continue):
If cleavage is present in more than one set,
 The cleavage angle (measurable by Goniometer) is
helpful in the identification of minerals.
 Ex: In pyroxenes, cleavage angles are 930 & 870 and
in calcite, cleavage angles are 1050 & 750.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
HARDNESS:
The resistance offered by the mineral to
abrasion or scratching
 It is related to atomic structure of a mineral.
 Ex: Muscovite mica cannot be scratched by
gypsum(2), but scratched by calcite(3)
 So, Muscovite’s hardness is 3.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
HARDNESS (continue):

 Does not depend on the chemical composition.

 Ex: Graphite and Diamond have the same chemical
composition, but have different atomic structures.
 Graphite is extremely soft whereas diamond is
extremely hard.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
HARDNESS (continue):
Common materials generally used to test the minerals
in field are:
 A fingernail has hardness (H = 2.5)
 A copper coin (H = 3.5)
 A broken glass piece (H = 5.5) and
 A pen knife (H = 6.5)
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 HARDNESS (continue):
 Hardness is a directional property.

 Ex: The cubic system minerals show same hardness

on all sides
 Because they possess the same atomic structure in
all directions.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 HARDNESS (continue):
 Minerals belonging to other crystal systems show a
difference in hardness in different directions.
Ex: Kyanite crystallizes under triclinic system has:
 hardness 4 along length-wise direction
 And hardness 7 along breadth-wise direction.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY (DENSITY):
 It depends on the chemical composition and atomic
structure of the mineral.
 Specific gravity of the mineral can be determined by
using: either Walker’s steel yard or
 Jolly’s spring balance in the lab.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (continue):

 Most of the rock-forming minerals have a specific

gravity range of 2.5 – 3.5 whereas
 Ore minerals have a specific gravity > 3.5 . Only a
few minerals have a specific gravity < 2.5.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (continue):

 The specific gravity property help in the

identification of minerals.
Ex: In case of Calcite and Barytes:
 The specific gravity of Calcite is about 2.7 and
 That of Barytes is 4.5.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (continue):

 Based on the range of specific gravity of rock
forming minerals:
 High (> 3.5) Ex: Magnetite (5.18)
 Medium (2.5 to 3.5) Ex: Quartz 2.7
 Low (< 2.5) Ex: Graphite (2-2.3)
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Degree of Transparency:
 It is also known as diaphaneity.
 Based on the resistance offered by the mineral to
the passage of light through them,
minerals can be classified as
 Transparent: (Ex: thin layers of Muscovite),
 Translucent: (Ex: Calcite, Amethyst) and
 Opaque: (Ex: Galena, Pyrite).
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Degree of Transparency ( continue):
 Depends on the chemical composition, impurities,
inclusions, weathering and also thickness.
Under microscopic study:
 The Rock-forming minerals are transparent
whereas
 The Ore minerals are opaque even when they are
made thinner.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Special properties:
Some minerals exhibit peculiar characters which
enable them to be identified easily.

 Talc : It exhibits a smooth touch or soapy feel.

 Graphite : Black colour marks on papers and low
hardness ( 1 to 2 )
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Special properties ( continue):

 Galena: Low hardness 2 to 3 and black colour makes

markings on papers sometimes.
 Pyrolusite and Graphite : Due to their softness and
black colour.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
Special properties ( continue):

 Kaolin: gives out a clayey small.

 Chalk: has a rough feeling of touch and adheres
strongly to the tongue.
 Magnetite: is strongly attracted by an ordinary
magnet.
 ROLE OF STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS:

 ADVANTAGES:
 Rocks are made up of minerals.
 Rocks and their properties can be known by
knowing about the common minerals present in
that rock.
ROLE OF STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS:
 ADVANTAGES (continue):
 Study of minerals or rocks is possible in the
field itself.
 Does not require more costly equipment
 Does not involve the use of chemicals and
does not need additional facilities.
ROLE OF STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS:

 ADVANTAGES (continue):
 The mineral can be studied any number of times
as no loss or wastage of mineral takes place.
 The quickest method of identifying the minerals.
 It is the cheapest, simplest and least tedious
method for identification of minerals.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Even slight variation in chemical composition
causes change in colour.
 Weathering alters many physical properties
significantly such that identification of mineral
becomes difficult.
 Some minerals show slight variations in
physical properties when formed under
different conditions.
Name of Mineral FELDSPAR:
with chem. comp. Aluminium silicate of K/Na/Ca
Form Tabular
Colour White/Pale colour
Lustre Vitreous
Fracture Even to uneven
Cleavage 2 Sets, at right angles
Hardness 6
Specific gravity Medium(2.5 to 3)
D. Transparency Translucent
Special properties -----
Remarks Most abundant rock-forming mrl.
Name of Mineral QUARTZ:
with chem. comp. SiO2
Form Massive/Crystals
Colour Usually colour less to any colour
Lustre Vitreous
Fracture Uneven to Conchoidal
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 7
Specific gravity Medium(2.5 to 3)
D. Transparency Transparent to Translucent
Special properties Horizontal straitations on cry.faces
Remarks Most resistant to weathering
Name of Mineral FLINT:
with chem. comp. SiO2
Form Massive/Crystals
Colour Yellow colour
Lustre Vitreous
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 7
Specific gravity Medium(2.5 )
D. Transparency Translucent
Special properties -----
Remarks Economic mineral
Name of Mineral JASPER:
with chem. comp. SiO2
Form Massive
Colour Red colour
Lustre Resinous
Fracture Conchoidal
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 7
Specific gravity Medium(2.57 to 2.65)
D. Transparency Nearly opaque
Special properties -----
Remarks Common in conglomerates
Name of Mineral OLIVINE
with chem. comp. (Mg, Fe)2 SiO4
Form Massive
Colour Olive green
Lustre Dull
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 6-7
Specific gravity Medium(3.2 to 3.5)
D. Transparency Nearly opaque
Special properties Olive green colour
Remarks
Name of Mineral AUGITE:
with chem. Comp. Complex silicate
Form Massive
Colour Black
Lustre Vitreous to Subvitreous
Fracture Even to uneven
Cleavage 2 Sets, (not perfect)
Hardness 5-6
Specific gravity Medium(3.2 to 3.5)
D. Transparency Nearly opaque
Special properties -----
Remarks Most common type of pyroxene
Name of Mineral HORNBLENDE:
with chem. comp. Complex silicate
Form Granular or prismatic aggregate
Colour Dark greenish
Lustre Vitreous to Subvitreous
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage 2 Sets, Prismatic
Hardness 5-6
Specific gravity Medium(3.0 to 3.5)
D. Transparency Nearly opaque
Special properties -----
Remarks Most common type of Amphibole
Name of Mineral MUSCOVITE:
with chem. comp. Complex silicate
Form Lamellar
Colour Silvery white, colourless in thin
Luster Pearly
Fracture Uneven to hackly
Cleavage 1 Set,
Hardness 2-3
Specific gravity Medium(2.7 to 3)
D. Transparency Thin layers are transparent
Special properties Cleavage is excellent
Remarks A very valuable variety of Mica
Name of Mineral BIOTITE:
with chem. comp. Complex silicate
Form Lamellar
Colour Dark greenish black or black
Lustre Pearly
Fracture Uneven to hackly
Cleavage 1 Set
Hardness 2-3
Specific gravity Medium(2.7 to 3)
D. Transparency Only very thin layers translucent
Special properties -----
Remarks Common rock-forming mica
Name of Mineral ASBESTOS:
with chem. comp. Complex silicate
Form Fibrous
Colour White/Pale colour
Luster Silky
Fracture Uneven to hackly
Cleavage 2 Sets, at right angles
Hardness vary
Specific gravity Medium
D. Transparency Thin fibers are translucent
Special properties -----
Remarks ----
Name of Mineral CHLORITE:
with chem. comp. (Mg,Fe)5 Al(Al,Si)3 O10 (OH)8
Form Foliated
Colour Green
Luster pearly
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Present
Hardness 1.5 - 2.5
Specific gravity Medium(2.6 to 2.9)
D. Transparency Nearly opaque
Special properties Green colour
Remarks
Name of Mineral KYANITE:
with chem. comp. Al2 SiO5
Form Bladed
Colour Blue
Lustre Vitreous to Subvitreous
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Present, 2 sets
Hardness Along length(4–5); width(5.5-6.5)
Specific gravity Medium (3.6)
D. Transparency Translucent along thin edges
Special properties Bladed form
Remarks A common Refractory mineral
Name of Mineral GARNET:
with chem. comp. Fe3 Al2 (SiO4)3
Form Massive, Crystals dodecahedron
Colour Red
Lustre Vitreous or adamantine
Fracture Uneven to subconchoidal
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 6.5 – 7.5
Specific gravity Medium
D. Transparency Translucent along thin edges
Special properties Crystal form is very common
Name of Mineral TALC:
with chem. comp. Mg3 Si4 O1O (OH)2
Form Foliated or massive
Colour White/Pale yellow/pale green
Lustre Pearly
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Present; 1 set
Hardness 1
Specific gravity Medium(2.7)
D. Transparency Translucent along thin edges
Special properties Soapy feel
Remarks Very valuable non – metallic mrl.
Name of Mineral CALCITE:
with chem. comp. Ca CO3
Form Rhombic form
Colour Colour less/White/Pale colour
Luster Vitreous
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage 3 Sets, ((1050))
Hardness 3
Specific gravity Medium(2.7)
D. Transparency Transparent to translucent
Special properties Reacts with acid
Remarks Common rock- forming mineral
Name of Mineral PYRITE:
with chem. comp. FeS2
Form Cubic/granular
Colour Brass yellow
Lustre Metallic
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage 3 Sets, Cubic
Hardness 6-7
Specific gravity High(5.0)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties Brass yellow, greenish black streak
Remarks Undesirable rock forming mineral
Name of Mineral HEMATIE:
with chem. Comp. Fe2 O3
Form Massive
Colour Steel grey
Lustre Metallic to submetallic
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 5-6
Specific gravity High(5.2)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties Steel grey , Cherry red streak
Remarks Most common form of Iron
Name of Mineral MAGNETITE:
with chem. comp. Fe3 O4
Form Granular
Colour Black
Lustre Metallic to submetallic
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 5-6
Specific gravity High(5.2)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties Strongly magnetic
Remarks
Name of Mineral CHROMITE:
with chem. comp. Fe Cr2 O4
Form Granular
Colour Black
Lustre Submetallic
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 5-6
Specific gravity High(4.5 – 5.0)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties Black colour with a brown streak
Remarks Only ore of chromium
Name of Mineral GALENA:
with chem. comp. PbS
Form Cubic/Rectangular /granular
Colour Lead grey
Lustre Splendent
Fracture Rarely found
Cleavage 3 sets, cubic
Hardness 2-3
Specific gravity High (7.5)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties Marks paper sometimes
Remarks Only important ore of Lead
Name of Mineral PYROLUSITE:
with chem. comp. MnO2
Form Massive/spongy
Colour Dark brownish black
Lustre Dull
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Indistinct
Hardness Variable
Specific gravity High (4.5 - 5)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties
Remarks Important ore of Manganese
Name of Mineral GRAPHITE:
with chem. comp. C
Form Massive/ granular
Colour Black
Lustre Shining greasy
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Present, Indistinct
Hardness 1-2
Specific gravity Low (2.0 – 2.3)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties Marks paper
Remarks Used in pencils
Name of Mineral MAGNESITE:
with chem.comp Mg CO3
Form Massive
Colour White
Lustre Dull
Fracture Even/Uneven/sub conchoidal
Cleavage Absent
Hardness 4-5
Specific gravity Medium (3.0 – 3.2)
D. Transparency Opaque
Specialproperties White colour, even fracture
Remarks A refractory mineral
Name of Mineral BAUXITE:
with chem. Comp Al2 O3 2H2 O
Form Pisolitic, spongy or massive
Colour Dirty white with patches of colours
Lustre Dull
Fracture Uneven
Cleavage Absent
Hardness Nearly 4 (Variable)
Specific gravity Medium(2.5 – 3.0)
D. Transparency Opaque
Special properties Pisolitic form
Remarks Only ore of Aluminium