 Introduction

 Fundamental Concepts Of Measurement

 Signal Processing and Sensors
 Basics of Mechatronics
 Accuracy And Error Analysis
 Measurement Statistics
 Data Presentation And Curve Fitting
 Slide Content
• Introduction

• Elements of a Measurement System

• Signal Processing

• Filtering

• Amplification

• Isolation

• Analog-to-Digital conversion
First and foremost……………

A measurement system (sensor) has several components which

contribute to the measurement process.

The various processes involve but are not limited to the following
stages:
signal sensing,
signal conversion,
signal processing,
signal transmission and
signal presentation/storage.

Signal Processing
The signal processing stage consists of complex sub components
and is thus deliberated upon later on under this topic.
 Signal Conditioning
- In electronics, signal conditioning is the manipulation of
a signal in a way that prepares it for the next stage of processing.

- It is commonly used in analog-to-digital converters.

- The signal is processed by a system.

- Here the system is biological in nature.

- Electronics systems may be used to mimic this behavior.

The signal processor may be:
- an electronic system,
- a mechanical system
- or even a computer program.
 ELEMENTS OF A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Generally classified into the following:

 Primary sensing element.

 Variable conversion element.

 Signal processing element

 Signal transmission element

 Signal presentation/recording element.

 PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT

- The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary
sensing element of a measurement system.

- Examples of primary sensors include liquid-in-glass thermometer,

thermocouple, and strain gauge.
 ELEMENTS OF A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT
- It converts the output of the primary sensing element into suitable form to
preserve the information content of the original signal.

- Variable conversion element are needed where the output variable of a

primary transducer is in an inconvenient form and has to be converted to a
more convenient form.

 SIGNAL PROCESSING ELEMENT

- Exists to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in
some way.

- A very common type of signal processing element is the electronic

amplifier (amplifies the output of the primary transducer or variable
conversion element) thus improving the sensitivity and resolution of
measurement.
 ELEMENTS OF A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

 SIGNAL TRANSMISSION ELEMENT

- Needed when the observation or application point of the output of a
measurement system is some distance away from the site of the primary
transducer.

- Sometimes, this separation is made solely for purposes of convenience,

but more often, it follows from the physical inaccessibility or
environmental unsuitability of the site of the primary transducer for
mounting the signal presentation/recording unit.

 SIGNAL PRESENTATION/RECORDING ELEMENT

- The information about the quantity under measurement has to be
conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument/system for
monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
ELEMENTS OF A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
…..in summary
Signal Processing
Signal processing is the act of extracting useful information using any
means.

• Hearing involves the use of our ears and auditory path ways to the
brain to extract the information.

• The signal is processed by a system.

• Here the system is biological in nature.

• Electronics systems may be used to mimic this behavior.

The signal processor may be:
- an electronic system
- a mechanical system
- or even a computer program.
Mechatronic System Block Diagram
Sometimes …………………..

Single unit
• In some cases signal conditioning circuits improve the quality of
signals generated by transducers before they are converted into
digital signals by the PC's data-acquisition hardware.

• Majorly involves filtering and amplification of measured signals.

• Figure below illustrates the output of a signal conditioning stage.

 Functions of the signal conditioning unit include the following:

MAJOR FUNCTIONS
• Filtering
- This is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually not
all the signal frequency spectrum is desired.
- A typical example is 50/60 Hz AC power lines, present in most
environments, which cause noise in the sensed signals.

• Amplification
Signal amplification performs two important functions:
- increment in the resolution of the input signal
- increment in the signal-to-noise ratio.

Commonly used amplifiers in signal conditioning include:

Sample and hold amplifiers Inverting amplifier

Non-Inverting amplifier Summing amplifier
Subtracting amplifier Integrating amplifier
Differentiating amplifier Difference amplifiers
• Isolation
- Signal isolation must be used to pass the signal from the source to the
measuring device without a physical connection

- Often used to isolate sensors from sources of noise.

Notable is that it is important to isolate the potentially expensive

equipment used to process the signal after conditioning from the sensor.

Typical examples include magnetic or optic isolation.

Magnetic isolation transforms the signal from voltage to a magnetic

field so the signal can be transmitted without physical connection (i.e.
using a transformer). Remember relays !!

Optic isolation modulates an electronic signal into a signal coded by

light transmission (optical encoding), which is then used for input to
the next stage of processing.
 MINOR FUNCTION
- Transducer excitation
Many common sensors require power to generate a signal. These include
strain gauges and RTDs. Transducer excitation provides this power so
sensors do not require external power sources.

- Cold-junction compensation
Specifically required by thermocouples.
Cold-junction compensation removes small voltage errors caused by
connecting a thermocouple using terminal blocks made of different
metals than the T/C itself.
This is achieved by reading of the ambient temperature at the point
where the thermocouple connects to the system.
- Linearization
Often sensors do not have a linear relationship between the output signal
and the physical quantity measured.
A thermocouple's nonlinear temperature-to-voltage relationship is a
prime example.

Linearization maps the relationship between a sensor's signal value and the
physical quantity it is measuring so that an incremental change in the physical
quantity corresponds to a similar incremental change in the output signal.

It can be implemented either on hardware or software component of a system.

- Multiplexing
Expansion of a measurement system's I/O channel count can be achieved
by passing multiple signals to the same digitization hardware.
Use of multiplexing techniques allows acquisition of more signals for less
money.

- Bridge completion
Particularly used with strain gauges.
If a given strain gauge is either quarter
- or half-bridge configuration, then the
measurement device's signal conditioning
must provide the necessary completion
resistors to make a full Wheatstone bridge.
- Shunt calibration
Used also with strain gauges.
Shunt calibration provides a known
strain value (load) that can be used
to calibrate the measurement system.

- Switching relays
Both electromechanical and solid-state
relays can be used to control external
system components/equipment whether
they receive power or not.

They use low voltage (ac/dc) to control

devices that may require much larger
voltages and currents to operate than
what is available in the measurement
system/circuit.

Ordinarily used to control motors, fans,

lights, or even other relays.
 Filtering
• A filter is used to remove undesirable frequency information from a
dynamic signal.
• Filters permit signal information associated with a defined band
of frequencies to pass. This is known as band-pass.
• On the other hand, filters are also capable of blocking signals
associated with a band of frequencies. This is known as the band-stop.
Low Pass Filter
more examples of low pass filter………….
 High Pass Filter
Capacitive high pass filter Inductive high pass filter
more examples of high pass filter………….
 Band Pass Filter

Simple band pass filter

More complex band pass filter

 Band Stop Filter

A simple band stop filter

A more complex band stop filter

 Butterworth Filter Design
• A Butterworth filter is optimized to achieve maximum flatness in
magnitude ratio over the pass-band.

• A simple construction involves the use of a resistor-and-capacitor (RC)

circuit shown below.

• Application of Kirchhoff’s law about the input loop gives us the model
relating the input voltage Ei to the output voltage Eo:

• The filter model is a first-order system with one reactive component

(capacitor) whose magnitude and phase response is given by:
 where  = frequency
 = time constant
K = static sensitivity
A = magnitude of input signal
B() = magnitude of output signal
M() = magnitude ratio
 () = phase shift

with  = RC and  = 2πf

• The roll-off slope is 20 dB/decade.

• A filter is designed around its cutoff frequency (fc).

• fc is defined as the frequency at which the signal power is reduced by half.

• This is equivalent to the magnitude ratio being reduced to 0.707.
In terms of decibels (dB): dB = 20 log M(f)

• fc occurs at - 3 dB, i.e. the frequency where the signal is attenuated by

3 dB.

• For the filter above, this requires that:  = RC = 1/(2πfc).

SENSORS
LINEAR POSITION:
 For manual measurement, traditional instruments such as micrometers,
vernier scales, and dial indicators are all used, and give accuracy down to
5 𝑜𝑟 10𝜇𝑚.
 Electronic versions now commonly used, with digital readouts and the
capability to be linked into computers and data loggers.
 Electronic versions usually give 2 to 4 times higher resolution than their
purely mechanical equivalents.
 The electronic micrometer or caliper is usually in the same form as its
mechanical equivalent, but with a linear encoder unit incorporated.
 These typically use capacitance sensors, with multiple sender plates fed with
alternating current (a.c.) voltages of different phases.
 The induced current on the receiver plate varies in phase as the sender and
receiver plates move relative to one another.
 Early versions of these devices had a habit of giving errors if :
- they were moved too rapidly or
- dirt contaminated the sensor surfaces.

 However, these problems have largely been eliminated with later designs.

Linear transducers vary enormously in terms of accuracy, range, and cost. Some of the
principal types are described below.

Potentiometers are relatively low-cost, low-accuracy devices, with errors of the order of 1
or 2 % typically. Higher accuracy versions are available, at higher cost. They are available in
linear forms with operating ranges from a few mm to hundreds of mm.

Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) are commonly used and highly
accurate. They consist of a core whose displacement gives rise to the signal or measurement by
flux linking the energizing coil to the detecting coil, in proportion to the displacement.
Various types of proximity sensors exist for measuring small displacements, operating
on inductive, capacitive, or Hall effect principles.

These are only suitable for movements of at most a few mm, and typically 1 mm or less.

One typical use is for monitoring the position of a shaft in a plain bearing, to indicate the
thickness of the lubricating oil film.

Also, Hall effect sensors are used for measuring the lift of a diesel fuel injector needle.

Another highly accurate non-contacting method is the silicon semiconductor position

sensitive detector. An example of its use is given on ‘Position sensing of photo masks
using a semiconductor sensor’.

For larger distances, (hundreds of mm to tens or hundreds of metres) various forms of

rangefinder exist. The oldest type is the optical rangefinder as used on older cameras,
where two images are adjusted until they are superimposed, and the distance is read from
a mechanical scale.
Modern versions use infra-red, ultrasound, or radio waves (e.g. radio-altimeters,
radar), detecting phase differences or time lags between the transmitted and reflected
signals.
LINEAR POSITION:
 All of these methods require a good target for reflecting the signal. It may be
speculated that poor signal reflection from forested hillsides could upset radio-
altimeters and contribute to some aircraft crashes.

 One example of the use of ultrasound distance measurement is for detecting the
level of product in large tanks and silos.

 For even larger distances, the Global Positioning System (GPS) can locate the
absolute position of an object in the open air (i.e. an aircraft or a surface vehicle) to
within 50 metres or so, by reference to a system of orbiting satellites.

 The military versions of this technology are believed to be considerably more

accurate than this, but are not readily available for civilian use. The system gives
vertical heights above sea level in addition to horizontal coordinates.

It is frequently convenient to convert linear distance or motion into rotary

motion by means of a wheel, rack and pinion, or cable and drum, and then use a
rotary measurement technique as described below.
ANGULAR POSITION AND ROTATION:
A. Level Measurement and Navigation:
 A simple form of angular position reference is the spirit level, often combined with
an angular scale or protractor.

 The familiar builder’s spirit level is not a particularly sensitive device, but
reversing it can give reasonably accurate self-checking results.

 Levels used for surveying purposes (in theodolites and similar instruments) can be
accurate to better than 1 minute of arc (0.3 milliradians).

 The spirit level works by gravity and therefore is subject to lunar and solar
attraction.

 This has been calculated to cause a maximum error of less than 10−6 radians on
approximately a daily cycle.

 This error is insignificant for most practical engineering purposes.

 There is an electronic version of the spirit level, the fluid level inclinometer.

 Various types of inclinometer exist, working either on a fluid level or on

pendulum principle.

 A magnetic compass is another familiar device, again typically of low

accuracy of the order of a degree.

 Versions used for ships and aircraft can be more accurate, by a factor of 10 or
so.

 Many mechanical types of compass create large errors due to accelerations in

an East-West direction.

 This is a consequence of the inclination to the horizontal of the earths

magnetic flux and the way in which the compass needle is suspended.
ANGULAR POSITION AND ROTATION:
Gyroscopes mounted in gimbals can provide an accurate angular position reference for only a
short period. Friction in the gimbals and in the gyro bearings causes drift, and also the rotation
of the earth requires compensating for.

A. Gyro-compass is a combination of gyroscope and compass, with the compass

compensating for the drift of the gyro, and the gyro stabilizing the short-term fluctuations of the
compass.

B. Relative Angles:
 The rotary potentiometer, as with the linear potentiometer, is an economical and
commonly used angle transducer with an accuracy typically of the order of 1%. Higher
accuracy can be achieved at higher cost.

 An interesting variant is the multiple turn potentiometer, often with 10 turns, which is a
convenient way of measuring angular position varying by more than 360°, and which also
gives higher accuracy to the order of 0.25%. The resistive track and wiper follow a helical
path, but the drive shaft rotates normally.

 Digital shaft encoders exist in various forms. Incremental encoders are essentially slotted
discs with an optical detector which counts the slots and deduces the relative shaft position.
ANGULAR POSITION AND ROTATION:
 In the absolute shaft encoder, the rotating element is a digitally encoded disc
with several concentric tracks, and the output is a binary code.

 If it is in standard binary, then a single increment can mean that several of the
digits have to change at once, so if one or more is slow to change then the output
is momentarily entirely wrong.

 Some encoders use the Gray code, which avoids this problem.

 If it is only required to detect one or a few angular positions accurately, then a

toothed or slotted steel wheel with a suitably positioned inductive sensor can
be used.

 This can accurately detect the leading or trailing edge of each tooth, and this
method is used for providing accurate timing signals for the spark on internal
combustion (IC) engines, or for synchronizing various actions on high-speed
machinery.
 LINEAR SPEED AND VELOCITY:
Many of the position measurement techniques described above are used also for
speed or velocity measurement by differentiating the signals with respect to time. In
a similar fashion, velocity information is often derived by integration from
accelerometer signals (described later in this note). In addition, there are certain
techniques which measure linear speed or velocity directly.

 Doppler effect devices measure the frequency difference between a transmitted

and a reflected signal, and deduce the relative velocity from this. A well-known
manifestation of this effect is the change in pitch of a siren on a vehicle as it goes
past a stationary observer. Devices based on ultrasound and microwave beams are
available.

 Photographic methods can directly show the velocity of moving particles or

markers (e.g. lights) on larger objects. If the time of exposure is known, the
velocity can be found from the length and direction of the streaks on the
photograph. This method is very useful for flow visualization. There are particular
types of errors which can occur with this method when focal plane shutters (as on a
typical SLR camera) are used.
  Another photographic principle is the time and distance method where a time
exposure photograph is taken of a target marker under stroboscopic lighting.
This can be a good method to reveal varying speeds.

Frequently it is convenient to mechanically convert linear motion to rotary

motion, the measure the speed by one of the techniques in the next sub-topic.

ROTATIONAL SPEED AND ANGULAR VELOCITY:

A. Basic Methods:
 Car Speedometer uses a small magnet and an aluminium disc.

- The magnet is rotated by an arm, inducing eddy currents in the disc which is
restrained by a hair-spring; the disc is deflected in proportion to the eddy
current drag.

- The usual output is a pointer on a circular scale.

Mechanical tachometers generally work on this principle or on a centrifugal
principle.

 Electrical tachometers (tachogenerators)

- use the dynamo principle.

- a rotating magnet is used as in the previous paragraph, but instead of generating

eddy current drag the magnet induces a direct current (d.c.) voltage in the stator
winding.

- If required this voltage can be fed back to a controller for closed-loop control.

 Pulse counting methods are very commonly used, and appear in a number of
forms.

 The optical tachometer detects pulses of light from discontinuities on a rotating

shaft.
These may be slots in a disc, a patch of white or reflective paint, or perhaps the
blades on a propeller. Reflection from oil streaks have been known to give
inadvertent extra signals.

Magnetic equivalents using rotating magnets or slotted steel discs and inductive
pick-ups are also commonly found.

Inductive pick-up types can sometimes give double the number of expected
pulses, due to the two flux changes at the leading and trailing edges of each slot.

A particularly economical version is a rotating magnet actuating a reed switch,

which is used in bicycle speedometers, hand-held cup anemometers and other
relatively low-speed applications.

Pulse counting methods are applicable up to very high speeds, rotational speeds
of the order of 3000 revolutions per second (180,000 rpm) having been
measured accurately.
ROTATIONAL SPEED AND ANGULAR VELOCITY:
A. Basic Methods:
Stroboscopic methods consists of using a stroboscopic light or a mechanical
stroboscope.

With stroboscopes there is a very real danger of gross errors caused by illuminating
only every second or third revolution and under-indicating the speed by a factor of
2 or 3.

If only part of the shaft circumference is visible, then it is also possible to over
indicate the speed by a factor of 2, due to the second image at 1800 being invisible.

One way of avoiding this is to use a helical marker around the shaft (if space is
available), which will help in detecting double illumination.

When using stroboscobic methods, great care is needed, preferably using a second
indicating method as an approximate crosscheck.
ROTATIONAL SPEED AND ANGULAR VELOCITY:
B. Shaft Encoders:
 For high accuracy, shaft encoders are used, and these give both speed
and/or position information.

 Furthermore, unlike basic pulse counting methods, they can detect the
direction of rotation when used with two signals 900 out of phase with
each other.

 The direction is determined from which signal appears first.

 Readily available encoders may give up to 6000 pulses per revolution or

operate to 12000 rpm and above.

 They differ from the tachogenerators in giving a digital output, which

may have to be converted to analogue for uses such as feedback control of
motor speed.
An incremental optical encoder works in a similar way to the toothed wheel and
slotted opto-switch, with a series of fine lines or grating on the rotating element, and
light-emitting diodes to transmit and photodiodes or equivalent to receive the light.

However, the light passes first through the rotating element and then through a
second (stationary) grating to give diffraction fringes.

This has the advantage that instead of the signal ramping from light to dark as each
line passes, the whole field goes light or dark, so that a square wave is obtained.

C. Gyroscopic Devices:
A gyroscope which is restrained (i.e. not gimbal mounted) and has its axis of rotation
forcibly rotated, exerts a moment on its mounts proportional to the absolute rate of
axis rotation.

This moment can be measured using load cells, or used to directly deflect a needle
against a spring force.

This latter principle is used in a simple rate-of-turn indicator used in light aircraft.

This method is obviously very valuable for angular velocity measurement where there
is no readily available static reference.
ROTATIONAL SPEED AND ANGULAR VELOCITY:

The ‘fibre-optic gyroscope’ which incorporates a very long loop of optical fibre
coiled up, with laser light sources and detectors, has been known for some time.

Its principle of operation is that when two light beams propagate in opposite
directions around a common path, they experience a relative phase shift depending
upon the rotation rate of the plane of the path.

This device therefore detects rotation rate, and the output can be integrated to give
the absolute heading.

These devices are of sufficiently low cost and high accuracy to be used in navigation
systems for cars.

Miniature low-cost ‘gyroscopes’ based on a vibrating beam principle are becoming

available, and these too should be appropriate for this purpose.
ACCELERATION:
Acceleration can be deduced by differentiation of a velocity signal, or double
differentiation of a displacement signal.

This applies equally to linear acceleration and angular acceleration.

Where acceleration is required to be measured directly, the most commonly used

device is the piezo-electric accelerometer, which measures the force required to
accelerate a small mass mounted within the device.

The only significant problem with this type is the low-frequency response, so when
signals of less than about 5 Hz are required to be measured accurately, it may be
necessary to consider other types of sensor, for example those based on strain
gauges.

For measuring angular acceleration a pair of carefully matched accelerometers can

be mounted parallel and a small distance apart, and their outputs subtracted.