Chapter 2
Elasticity and Viscoelasticity
Effect of Porosity on Young’s Modulus
The elastic moduli of ceramics are strongly dependent on porosity.
Watchman and Mackenzie E E0 (1 f1 f 2 2 )
(empirical) : f1 1.9, f 2 0.9
Effect of Porosity Comparison with Law of Mixtures
From law of mixtures.
From Watchman Mackenzie.
f1 1.9, f 2 0.9
Comparing the two:
The physical significance of Mac Kenzie’s equation is that porosity has an
effect of E equal to approximately double the volume of pores.
Effect of Microcracks on Young’s Modulus
Effect of Microcracks on Young’s Modulus
Salganik model
E
[1 1.63 Na 3 ]1
E0
O’connell & Budiansky model
E
1 1.63 Na 3
E0
Young’s Modulus of Polymers
Young’s Modulus of Polymers as a Function
of Temperature
Viscoelasticity
Glasses or amorphous materials show the phenomenon of time dependent strain,
called viscoelasticity or anelasticity.
It is due to a continuous displacement of atoms or molecules taking place
with time at a constant load.
n = 0: plastic
n = 1: linear viscous (Newtonian)
n ≠1 : nonlinear n
Viscosity and Fluidity
Viscosity
Q
A exp( )
RT
Q = activation energy for the atomic/molecular process responsible for the viscosity,
Fluidity
1
Viscoelasticity
e e0 exp[i ( t )]
0 exp[i ( t )]
0 0
E exp i (cos i sin )
e e0 e0
E ' iE "
Viscoelasticity
Tensile storage modulus 0
E' cos
e0
0
E" sin
Tensile loss modulus e0
Rubber Elasticity
nKT [12 11 ]
l1
1
l0
Rubber Elasticity
The first law of thermodynamics says that the internal energy of a system is given
by
for a reversible process, we can write, from the second law of thermodynamics
For conditions of constant temperature and volume, we can write
For such polymers, one can write an expression for the entropy of the form, where
p is the probability of finding a particular chain configuration
The tensile force applied to the rubber cube in direction 1 leads to draw ratios λ1,
λ2,andλ3along directions 1, 2, and 3, respectively
number of configurations available to a stretched polymer is less than the number of
configuratons available to an unstretched polymer, i.e. the entropy is reduced on
stretching
Let the end-to-end distance of a chain be r1
Assuming that the polymer chain follows ‘‘random walk” statistics, it can be shown
that the distribution of lengths,r, follows a Gaussian distribution.
Stress-Strain Behavior of Biological Materials
(a) Stress–strain response of human vena cava: circles-loading;
squares-unloading. (Adapted from Y. C. Fung, Biomechanics (New York:
Springer, 1993),p. 366.)
(b) Representation of mechanical response in terms of tangent modulus (slope
of stress–strain curve) vs. stress. (Adapted from Y. C. Fung. Biomechanics,
New York: Springer,1993), p. 329.)
Residual Stresses in Arteries
Cartilage
Mesostructure of Cartilage
(a) Mesostructure of cartilage (consisting of four zones) showing differences in
structure as a function of distance from surface; the bone attachment is at bottom.
(From G. L. Lucas, F. W. Cooke, and E. A. Friis, A Primer on Biomechanics (New
York: Springer, 1999), p. 273.)
(b) Cross-section of human cartilage showing regions drawn schematically in (a).
(Courtesy of K. D. Jadin and R. I. Sah.)
Mechanical Behavior of Superficial Zone of Cartilage
Stress–strain curve for samples from the superficial zone of articular cartilage. Samples
were cut parallel and perpendicular to collagen fiber orientation. (From G. E. Kempson,
Mechanical Properties of Articular Cartilage. In Adult Articular Cartilage, ed. M. A. R.
Freeman (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., 1973), pp. 171–228.)
Mechanical Testing of DNA
Force vs. Extension for DNA Molecule
Stresses in a Thin Film
Effect of stresses in a thin film on bending of substrate; (a) tensile stresses
in thin film; (b) compressive stresses in thin film.
Elastic Constant and Bonding
Two atoms with an imaginary spring between them; (a) equilibrium position; (b) stretched
configuration under tensile force; (c) compressed configuration under compressive force.
Attraction and Repulsion between Two Atoms
(a) Interaction energies (attractive and repulsive terms) as a function of separation;
(b) Force between two atoms as a function of separation; slope decreases as separation increases .
