Support, Protection,

Movement, and Locomotion

Mammalian Skin
- support and protect soft tissues against
abrasion, microbes
- reception and transduction of external
stimuli - i.e. heat, chemical, tactile
- transport of materials involved in excretion,
secretion, resorption, dehydration,
rehydration
- heat regulation
- respiration
- nutrition/nutrient storage - i.e. storage of
vitamins, synthesis of Vitamin D
- locomotion
- coloration - cryptic or display
 Epidermis
- is relatively thin in most animals
- the upper layer composed of mostly dead,
differentiated cells (stratum corneum) with a lot of
keratin which helps the skin maintain some protection
against water loss and bacteria
- continually produced by the most basal layer of the
epidermis (stratum germinativum) and consists of
cuboidal cells that are generalized and move toward
the upper layer as they differentiate
- as the cells move outward, most synthesize keratin, a
water-insoluble protein, the cells become flattened,
die, and are sloughed off. Other epidermal cells form
multicellular glands or isolated glandular cells.
Dermis
- is more of a connective tissue than protective
- irregularly-shaped connective tissue cells that produce the
extracellular matrix, including collagen and elastic fibers
- the upper layer (stratum laxum) lies directly below the basement
membrane and is mostly loosely-packed cells
- the stratum compactum lies below and contains more tightly-
packed cells
- the presence of elastin in the dermis is a synapomorphy of
Gnathostomata - in part, the dermis anchors the skin to the underlying
musculature
- also includes dermal scales, blood vessels, nerves, pigment cells,
the bases of feathers and hairs, and their associated erector muscles.
What is synapomorphy?
There are three major types of hard tissue
associated with skin:
• Enamel
• Dentine
• Bone
Enamel
- the hardest tissue in the body
- made of hydroxyapatite and has no
cells or tubules within it; only about
3% of it is organic
- ectodermal in origin and is
produced by accretion of layers
- generally it is the most superficial
of hard tissues and is found on teeth
and the outer layers of denticles,
scales and dermal armor
Dentin
- is softer than enamel and has about
25% organic fibers
- usually contains tubules occupied by
the processes of the mesodermal cells
- found on the same structures as
enamel, but is always deep to the
enamel layer
- some types of dentine are
osteodentine, orthodentine, and
cosmine, the last of these has
characteristic types of canals
Bone

- has about the same level of organic

component as dentine
- may have osteons (Haversian
systems) as does osteodentine, or may
be deposited in layers like orthodentine
- unlike enamel and dentine, bone
may undergo drastic reorganization
Integuments in other animal
groups
 Basal types of Scales
cycloid scale - thin bony scale having a
smooth surface and rounded margins
ctenoid scale - thin bony scale having
comblike processes on its outer part and a
serrate margin
placoid scale - scaly outgrowth of the skin,
that is thicker and more embedded in the
skin
cosmoid scale - thick bony plates that are
embedded into the skin, that act more like
a bony armor
PLACOID SCALES
the most primitive form of
scales, are found in sharks.
These scales do not grow
in size as the fish size
increases. Instead, more
scales are added.
GANOID SCALES
Ganoid scales, found in gar, are
slightly less primitive than placoid
scales. These scales grow in size as
the fish ages. Ganoid scales are
diamond shaped. These scales are
hard and thick. The scale is formed
from ganoine.
CYCLOID SCALES
are the less advanced of the advanced
scale types. An example of a fish with
cycloid scales is minnows. Cycloid
scales increase in size as the fish ages.
The growth can be seen in rings on the
scale. These rings can be related to the
age of the fish. Cycloid scales are thin,
circular scales covered by a thin layer
of epidermis and mucus. This gives the
fish a slimy feel.
CTENOID SCALE
Ctenoid scales are the most
advanced of all the scale forms.
Sunfish and drum are fish with
ctenoid scales. These scales also
increase in size as the fish grows,
producing rings. Ctenoid scale
structure is similar to cycloid scales
with the exception of tiny comb- like
protrusions on the posterior of the
scale. These projections allow the
fish to swim faster.
Agnathans (Jawless fishes)
The skin of living agnathans lacks dermal bone or
scales, but the earliest craniate fossils
(Ostracoderms) are known from tiny scales of
dermal bone found in the Cambrian period. These
scales had
- a deepest, thin layer of lamellar bone,
- a thick layer of spongy (vascular) bone,
- another layer called dentine, and
- a surface coat of enamel-like material, often
called ganoine.
There was a pore-canal system that likely functioned
in electroreception
Chondrichthyes
(Cartilaginous fishes)

The skin is covered with

denticles or placoid scales with
layers of dense lamellar bone,
dentine, and enamel
Teeth are modified placoid
scales
 Osteichthyes (Bony fishes)
Integument of fish is characterized by structures that help the organism
maintain its water balance
generally characterized by thin epidermis, with little or no keratinized
cells at the stratum corneum
mucus secreted from fish's skin which seals out water and also prevents
invasion by ectoparasites and fungus
glands are unicellular - derived from a single epidermal cell
Structures associated most with the fishes are scales:
composed of three basic compounds: bone, dentine and enamel (moving
from inside to outside); the outside layer, enamel, is the hardest tissue in
the body, and therefore can be very protective
Amphibians
The earliest tetrapods had dermal scales, which
probably functioned as armor. Among living
amphibians, caecilians have tiny dermal scales
called osteoderms. Their homology with dermal
armor is not clear.
Amphibians mark the transition between the
aquatic and terrestrial environment. Skin
resembles the skin of the fish; however, scales are
not present.
-To prevent water loss, amphibians utilize mucus,
which is a similar mechanism that fish use to
prevent taking on additional water. However, the
mucus in amphibians is secreted by multicellular
- The primary gland responsible for the secretion is
the parotid gland, located behind the ear of
amphibians.
 Reptiles
Reptiles show more advanced integumental
adaptations to the terrestrial environment
because they are more far-removed from the
water.
The cells are more highly keratinized.
The integument is modified into horny scales in
snakes and lizards. In snakes, the scales on the
ventral surface can be further modified into
scutes, which can be used in locomotion. In
turtles the epidermis is strongly modified into
plates that cover the shell, and because they
increase in diameter each year, they can be
used to age the animals.
Birds
The integument of birds reflects some reptilian ancestry and some new
developments of the class. Scales are present on the legs and feet of
most birds, and the bill is covered in a tough skin that is highly
keratinized. The remaining skin is relatively thin.
The defining characteristic of bird integument is feathers:
- derived originally from scales, scales and feathers are homologous
- function in flight (flight feathers) as well as temperature regulation
(contour feathers)
- basic structure of feather calamus, rachis and vane, which are derived
from a feather follicle. The vane is composed of barbs that help to hold
the shape of the feather and can be put back into place during
preening.
 Mammals
Hair provides insulation as well as some additional
protection to the animal
- grow in follicles derived from the stratum
germinativum of the epidermis but are rooted in
the dermis
- hair growth continues until the mitosis in the
root stops - individuals in which mitosis completely
stops at the hair root are usually the ones that go
bald.
Softer hairs (such as our fine body hairs) lack a
medulla, whereas our scalp hair contains a medulla
and is usually very strong.
Modifications of hair include guard hairs (that
protect the undercoat hair), quills (such as in
hedgehogs and porcupines) and vibrissae (the
tactile whiskers on the snouts of mammals).
Glands of the skin
Glands associated with the skin that help to protect the skin and its associated
structures, aid in heat regulation, and give off scent. Include:
- sebaceous glands which lubricate and waterproof hairs - special case in birds
the uropygial gland located at the base of the tail which secretes a waxy
substance that is used to waterproof and clean feathers.
- two types of sweat glands in mammals aid in heat regulation: eccrine and
apocrine sweat glands
- eccrine sweat glands secrete a watery solution that assists in evaporative
cooling on the entire body
- apocrine sweat glands have thicker secretions that contain more odor, and
are sometimes modified into scent glands in some species to use for scent
marking (dogs) or defense (skunks); also the wax gland, which secretes the wax
in mammalian ears.
- the mammary gland (related to sebaceous glands) which contain fatty tissue
in addition to secretory cells that produce milk; usually only become active under
hormonal influences, such as the secretion of prolactin by the body that occurs
in females during pregnancy and lactation.
Integument coloration - Pigment cells
Pigment cells (chromatophores) are derived from neural crest cells that break off
from the ectoderm during neural tube formation and are usually found in the
dermis
- in the epidermis of mammals and birds, the pigment cells are usually
melanophores which contain the pigment melanin. Melanin is red or blackish
brown. Melanophores in the epidermis are usually responsible for slow color
change, such as that related to aging or seasonal changes.
- in groups other than mammals and birds the chromatophores are mostly in the
dermis:
- melanophores are like those of the epidermis
iridophores have organelles that contain platelets of guanine pigment, which
reflects or scatters light
- xanthophores and erythrophores have yellowish pteridine pigments and
reddish carotenoid pigments
- dermal chromatophores are responsible for rapid, physiological color change.
Coloration can be of many types, including cryptic (providing blend into the
environment) and aposematic (warning coloration, that occurs in some snakes)
Nails, claws, hoofs, horns and antlers

- nails grow from the nail bed located in the epidermis at the distal part of
the phalanges; the nail is highly cornified in ungulates whereas in clawed
animals the nail is elongated and thickened for defense or predation
- horns are supported by a bony structure growing out from the skull;
surrounding the bony core is a highly keratinized layer of the epidermis
which is generally permanent
- antlers are not present throughout the year, and are shed during the non-
breeding season; develop under a protective covering of skin (velvet), which
is lost as the antlers mature
- rhinoceros horns are simply hairlike keratin fibers that are woven
together without a bony core - similar to baleen in whales that is used for
feeding