TOS ASSIGNMENT 2

SPACE FRAME STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION

Definition of the Space Frame:

● In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure (3D

truss) is a rigid, lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a
geometric pattern.
● Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports. Like the
truss, a space frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing
loads (bending moments) are transmitted as tension and compression loads along
the length of each strut.
● A space frame is a structure system assembled of linear elements so arranged that
forces are transferred in a three-dimensional manner. In some cases, the constituent
element may be two-dimensional.

General Introduction:

● A growing interest in space frame structures has been witnessed worldwide over the
last half century.
● The search for new structural forms to accommodate large unobstructed areas has
always been the main objective of architects and engineers. With the advent of
new building techniques and construction materials, space frames frequently
provide the right answer and satisfy the requirements for lightness, economy, and
speedy construction.
● New and imaginative applications of space frames are being demonstrated in the
total range of building types, such as sports arenas, exhibition pavilions, assembly
halls, transportation terminals, airplane hangars, workshops, and warehouses.
● They have been used not only on long-span roofs, but also on mid- and short-span
enclosures as roofs, floors, exterior walls,and canopies.
BASIC CONCEPT :

● The space frame can be formed either in a flat or a curved surface.

● The earliest form of space frame structures is a single layer grid.
● By adding intermediate grids and including rigid connecting to the joist and girder
framing system, the single layer grid is formed.
● The major characteristic of grid construction is the omni-directional spreading of the
load as opposed to the linear transfer of the load in an ordinary framing system.
● Since such load transfer is mainly by bending, for larger spans, the bending stiffness is
increased most efficiently by going to a double layer system.
● The load transfer mechanism of curved surface space frame is essentially different from
the grid system that is primarily membrane-like action.

The concept of a space frame can be best explained by the following example :

● The roof system is a complex roof ● Latticed trusses are laid orthogonally to
comprised of planar lattice trusses. form a system of space latticed grids
● Each truss will resist the load acting on that will resist the roof load through its
it independently and transfer the load integrated action as a whole and
to the columns on each end. transfer the loads to the columns along
● To ensure the integrity of the roof the perimeters.
system, usually purlins and bracings are ● Since the loads can be taken by the
used between trusses. members in three dimensions, the
corresponding forces in space latticed
grids are usually less than that in planar
trusses, and hence the depth can be
decreased in a space frame.
The same concept can be observed in the design of a circular dome.
Again, there are two different ways of framing a dome.

● It is a complex dome comprised of ● It is an assembly of a series of

elements such as arches, primary and longitudinal, meridional, and diagonal
secondary beams, and purlins, which members, which is a certain form of
all lie in a plane. latticed shell.
● Each of these elements constitutes a ● It is a system whose resisting capacity is
system that is stable by itself. ensured only through its integral action
as a whole.
The difference between planar structures and space frames can be understood also by
examining the sequence of flow of forces.
In a planar system, the force due to the roof load is transferred successively through the
secondary elements, the primary elements, and then finally the foundation.
In each case, loads are transferred from the elements of a lighter class to the elements of a
heavier class.
As the sequence proceeds, the magnitude of the load to be transferred increases, as does
the span of the element.
Thus, elements in a planar structure are characterized by their distinctive ranks, not only
judging by the size of their cross-sections, but also by the importance of the task assigned.

ADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAMES

1. Light weight - mainly due to fact that material is distributed spatially in such a way that
the load transfer mechanism is primarily axial—tension or compression.
2. Most space frames are now constructed with steel or aluminum, which decreases
considerably their self-weight.
3. Space frames can be built from simple prefabricated units, which are often of standard
size and shape.
4. Such units can be easily transported and rapidly assembled on site by semi-skilled labor.
Consequently, space frames can be built at a lower cost.
5. Sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is due to its three-dimensional character and
to the full participation of its constituent elements.
6. Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard module
to generate various flat space grids, latticed shell, or even free-form shapes.
7. Desire for openness for both visual impact as well as the ability to accommodate
variable space requirements always calls for space frames as the most favorable
solution.
 CAMBERING AND SLOPE
Cambering is considered when the structure under load appears to be sagging and the
deflection might be visually undesirable. A camber adds extra structural support to a wide
span or space. Camber is used in long spans with the purpose of counteracting deflection
due to load.

It is suggested that the cambering be limited to 1/300 of the shorter span. Most double layer
grids are sufficiently stiff, so cambering is often not required.

Cambering is usually done in (a) cylindrical, (b) ridge or (c, d) spherical shape.

Ways of Cambering

If the grid is being fabricated on site by welding, then almost any type of camber can be
obtained as this is just a matter of setting the joint nodes at the appropriate levels.
If the grid components are fabricated in the factory, then it is necessary to standardize the
length of the members. This can be done by keeping either the top or bottom layer chords
at the standard length, and altering the other either by adding a small amount to the
length of each member or subtracting a small amount from it to generate the camber
required.
Sometimes cambering is suggested so as to ensure that the rainwater drains off the roof
quickly to avoid ponding.
Way of establishing a roof slope :
1. Establishing short posts of different height on the joints of top layer grids.
2. Varying the depth of grids.
3. Forming a slope for the whole grid.
4. Varying the height of supporting columns.

Ways of forming roof slope

 DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS

1. Types and Geometry

Double layer grids, or flat surface space frames, consist of two planar networks of members
forming the top and bottom layers parallel to each other and interconnected by vertical and
inclined web members. Double layer grids are characterized by the hinged joints with no
moment or torsional resistance; therefore, all members can only resist tension or compression.
Even in the case of connection by comparatively rigid joints, the influence of bending or
torsional moment is insignificant.

Double layer grids are usually composed of basic elements such as:

● a planar latticed truss

● a pyramid with a square base that is essentially a part of an octahedron
● a pyramid with a triangular base (tetrahedron)

Basic elements of double layer grids.

A large number of types of double layer grids can be formed by these basic elements. They
are developed by varying the direction of the top and bottom layers with respect to each
other and also by the positioning of the top layer nodal points with respect to the bottom
layer nodal points. Additional variations can be introduced by changing the size of the top
layer grid with respect to the bottom layer grid. Thus, internal openings can be formed by
omitting every second element in a normal configuration.

According to the form of basic elements, double layer grids can be divided in two groups,
i.e., latticed grids and space grids

The latticed grids consist of intersecting vertical latticed trusses and form a regular grid. Two
parallel grids are similar in design, with one layer directly over the top of another. Both top
and bottom grids are directionally the same.
The space grids consist of a combination of square or triangular pyramids. This group covers
the offset grids, which consist of parallel grids having an identical layout with one grid offset
from the other in plane but remaining directionally the same, as well as the so-called
differential grids in which two parallel top and bottom grids are of a different layout but are
chosen to coordinate and form a regular pattern.

Group 1. Composed of latticed trusses

Two-way orthogonal latticed grids Two-way diagonal latticed grids

Three-way latticed grids One-way latticed grids

Group 2A. Composed of square pyramids

Orthogonal square pyramid space grids Orthogonal square pyramid space grids with
openings

Differential square pyramid space grids Diagonal square pyramid space grids
Group 2B. Composed of triangular pyramids

Triangular pyramid space grids Triangular pyramid space grids with openings

2. Type Choosing

In the preliminary stage of design, it is most important to choose an appropriate type of

double layer grid that will have direct influence on the overall cost and speed of
construction. It should be determined comprehensively by considering :

1. The shape of the building plan,

2. The size of the span,
3. Supporting conditions,
4. Magnitude of loading,
5. Roof construction
6. Architectural requirements.

In general, the system should be chosen so that the space grid is built of relatively long
tension members and short compression members

● In choosing the type, the steel weight is one of the important factors for comparison
When the plan is square or nearly square (aspect ratio = 1 to 1.5), two-way latticed
grids and all space grids of Group 2A, i.e., Type 1, 2, and 5 through 8, could be
chosen.
● Of these types, the diagonal square pyramid space grids or differential square
pyramid space grids have the minimum steel weight.
● When the plan is comparatively narrow (aspect ratio = 1.5 to 2), then those double
layer grids with orthogonal grid systems in the top layer will consume less steel than
those with a diagonal grid system. Therefore, two-way orthogonal latticed grids,
orthogonal square pyramid space grids, and also those with openings and differential
square pyramid space grids, i.e., Types 1, 5, 6, and 7, could be chosen.
● For square or rectangular double layer grids supported along perimeters on three sides
and free on the other side. The boundary along the free side should be strengthened
either by increasing the depth or number of layers.
● In case the double layer grids are supported on intermediate columns, type could be
chosen from two-way orthogonal latticed grids, orthogonal square pyramid space
grids, and also those with openings, i.e., Types 1, 5, and 6. If the supports for multi-span
double layer grids are combined with those along perimeters, then two-way diagonal
latticed grids and diagonal square pyramid space grids, i.e., Types 2 and 8, could also
be used.
● For double layer grids with circular, triangular, hexagonal, and other odd shapes
supporting along perimeters, types with triangular grids in the top layer, i.e., Types 3, 9,
and 10, are appropriate for use.

Type Choosing for Double Layer Grids

PARAMETERS FOR DESIGN

The main parameters for design are:

1. Topology
2. Grid size
3. Grid depth
4. Support condition

1. TYPOLOGY

Normally the following six topologies are used in double layer grids:
1. Square on square offset.
2. Square on square set diagonally.
3. Square on larger square.
4. Square on large square set diagonally
5. Square on diagonal.
6. Diagonal on square

The topologies control stiffness and stress pattern in the components. The selection of a
particular topology depends on the type of loading, type of support condition and the grid
size module.
The topologies like square on diagonal and diagonal on square are used for moderate
loading and are less expensive because the number of nodes and the number of diagonal
members are less (sparsely populated members) when compared to other topologies.

SQUARE ON SQUARE OFFSET SQUARE ON SQUARE SET DIAGONALLY

SQUARE ON LARGER SQUARE SQUARE ON LARGER SQUARE SET DIAGONALLY

SQUARE ON DIAGONAL DIAGONAL ON SQUARE

 2. GRID SIZE

The grid size is chosen based on the type of sheeting and the maximum span for which it
can be used. For example the Asbestos Cement sheet can span up to 1.4 m. Therefore, the
grid size for the square on diagonal topology module is chosen with 2.B m x 2.8 m square.
This will give an effective purlin spacing of 1.4 m. The use of Asbestos Cement sheets has
been banned in many countries but still in India, the Asbestos Cement sheet roofing is
adopted. When colour coated metal sheets are employed larger module sizes can be
adopted.

3. GRID DEPTH

The depth adopted for the preliminary analysis varies between span/20 to span/15.
However, the optimum grid depth depends on the type of topology, grid size, loading and
the support conditions.

4. SUPPORT CONDITION

The location of the support is decided based on user requirement. The support conditions
are chosen to avoid building up of temperature stresses. The boundary conditions used are
pinned, roller or combination of both. The support locations and type of support used (either
roller or pinned) has significant influence on the deflections and stresses in the entire
structure. Therefore proper choice of location and support condition will lead to economical
design. Hence this becomes an important parameter while searching for an optimal solution
with respect to reduction in weight of the overall double layer grid.
 METHOD OF ERECTION:

● Element Erection Method and Block Erection Method:

Element and block erection methods are one of the most popular erection methods for space
structures. When the method employed makes use of single unit members that are
assembled individually, it is called the element erection method. On the other hand, the block
erection method employs sub-assemblies of large blocks connected by a crane employing
scaffold or temporary supports assembled initially at ground level. This reduces the amount
of assembling work to be done at the higher level since more work is being done on the
ground level. The block method of erection is suitable in situations where double layer grids
(two-way orthogonal latticed grids, orthogonal square pyramid space grids) are employed
because the stiffness and load resisting behavior of the grids do not change after dividing
them into strips or blocks.

● Move-Scaffold Method
This method makes use of the moveable scaffold to construct or erect the roof structures.
The movable scaffold is generally laden with a number of wheels and motors for them to be
able to move on rails. In case of large roof structures, this method minimizes the amount of
scaffold used effectively. The location of the temporary supports and the amounts and size
of movable scaffolds to be used are determined through multiple studies that also include
computer simulation. The structures under erection are analyzed through a computer to
enable utmost accuracy in the process. The move scaffold method also reduces the schedule
of construction.

● Sliding Method
The roof structure in this method is temporarily assembled partly on a stage and is slid along
a rail settled along temporary supports or perimeter beams. The units slide one after the
other to the final position and are then assembled together or they are assembled
successively during the sliding process only. This makes it possible for the erection of roof to
take place simultaneously as the construction of the building underneath and in turn saving
total time taken for construction and also enables reduction in the cost of scaffoldings.

● Lift-up Method
Lift-up method involves assembling of the roof-structure completely at the ground level and
then lifting up the roof to the desired level. Oil jacks or winches are usually used to lift the
assembled structure up to the designed level. The conventional equipment used for lifting the
roof is hydraulic jacks. This lifting method is suitable for double layer grids that are supported
on multipoint supports or along perimeters because the space frame is lifted simultaneously
with slip forms for reinforced concrete columns or walls. This method produces increased
efficiency and better quality.

● Jack Down Method

In this method, membrane is adopted for the roof and the roof structure employs an
orthogonal two way grid. A number of temporary supports, tie-beams are used during the
erection process under the roof. Jack-downs are operated sequentially. The sizes of the
structural members to be used are determined by considering the design loads and the
erection process. The process also includes several computer simulation studies to gauge
the safety of the structure and the type of temporary materials to be used. The base structure
and the roof structure both can be affected by inappropriate use of this method.The method
especially when including tension members into the structure needs to be put through
thorough studies before the erection process itself.
 Method of Support
Ideal double layer grids would be square, circular, or other polygonal shapes with overhanging and
continuous supports along the perimeters. This will approach more of a plate type of design which
minimizes the maximum bending moment. However, the configuration of the building has a great
number of varieties and the support of the double layer grids can take the following locations:
1. Support along perimeters—This is the most commonly used support location. The supports of
double layer grids may directly rest on the columns or on ring beams connecting the columns or
exterior walls. Care should be taken that the module size of grids matches the column spacing.
2. Multi-column supports—For single-span buildings, such as a sports hall, double layer grids can be
supported on four intermediate columns as shown in Figure 13.5a. For buildings such as workshops,
usually multi-span columns in the form of grids are used. Sometimes the column grids are used in
combination with supports along perimeters.Overhangs should be employed where possible in order
to provide some amount of stress reversal to reduce the interior chord forces and deflections. For
those double layer grids supported on intermediate columns, it is best to design with overhangs,
which are taken as 1/4 to 1/3 of the midspan. Corner supports should be avoided if possible because
they cause large forces in the edge chords. If only four supports are to be provided, then it is more
desirable to locate them in the middle of the sides rather than at the corners of the building.
3. Support along perimeters on three sides and free on the other side—For buildings of a rectangular
shape, it is necessary to have one side open, such as in the case of an airplane hanger or for future
extension. Instead of establishing the supporting girder or truss on the free side, triple layer grids can
be formed by simply adding another layer of several module widths (Figure 13.6). For shorter spans,
it can also be solved by increasing the depth of the double layer grids. The sectional area of the
members along the free side will increase accordingly

· The columns for double layer grids must support gravity loads and possible lateral forces. Typical
types of support on multi-columns
· Usually the member forces around the support will be excessively large, and some means of
tansferring the loads to columns are necessary.
· It may carry the space grids down to the column top by an inverted pyramid a or by triple layer grids,
which can be employed to carry skylights.
· If necessary, the inverted pyramids may be extended down to the ground level
· The spreading out of the concentrated column reaction on the space grids reduces the maximum
chord and web member forces adjacent to the column supports and reduces the effective spans.
· The use of a vertical strut on column tops enables the space grids to be supported on top chords,
but the vertical strut and the connecting joint have to be very strong.

MULTI COLUMN SUPPORT

 SUPPORTING COLUMNS

TRIPLE LAYER GRIDS ON FREE SIDE

CASE STUDY: MAHINDRA TOWERS, WORLI.

● TYPOLOGY OF THE BUILDING:

OFFICE BUILDING.

● TYPE OF SPACE FRAME USED:

DOUBLE LAYER GRID FRAME

● METHOD OF SUPPORT:

THE FRAME IS SUPPORTED ON THE

PERIMETER BY THE TWO SIDES OF
THE BUILDING THROUGH
COLUMNS WHICH FORMS AN
INTERMEDIATE SUPPORT AND IS
SUPPORTED ON THE CORNER OF
THE ADJACENT TWO SIDES WITH A
COLUMN MAKING THE OTHER
TWO SIDES FREE.

● TONNAGE: 71.55 mT

● HEIGHT : 40M
JOINING SYSTEMS:

● The jointing system is an extremely important part of a space frame design. An

effective solution of this problem may be said to be fundamental to successful
design and construction.
● The type of jointing depends primarily on the connecting technique, whether it is
bolting, welding, or applying special mechanical connectors.
● It is also affected by the shape of the members.
● This usually involves a different connecting technique depending on whether the
members are circular or square hollow sections or rolled steel sections.

● The effort expended on research and

development of jointing systems has
been enormous and many different
types of connectors have been
proposed in the past decades.
● The joints for the space frame are
more important than the ordinary
framing systems because more
members are connected to a single
joint.
● Furthermore, the members are
located in a three-dimensional space,
and hence the force transfer
mechanism is more complex.
● The role of the joints in a space frame is so significant that most of the successful
commercial space frame systems utilize proprietary jointing systems.
● Thus, the joints in a space frame are usually more sophisticated than the joints in
planar structures, where simple gusset plates will suffice.
● In designing the jointing system, the following requirements should be considered.
The joints must be strong and stiff, simple structurally and mechanically, and yet
easy to fabricate without recourse to more advanced technology.
● The eccentricity at a joint should be kept to a minimum, yet the joint detailing
should provide for the necessary tolerances that may be required during the
construction.
● Finally, joints of space frames must be designed to allow for easy and effective
maintenance.
● The cost of the production of joints is one of the most important factors affecting
the final economy of the finished structure.
● Usually the steel consumption of the connectors will constitute 15 to 30% of the
total.
● Therefore, a successful prefabricated system requires joints that must be
repetitive, mass produced, simple to fabricate, and able to transmit all the forces in
the members interconnected at the node.
● All connectors can be dividedinto two main categories: the purpose-made joint and
the proprietary joint used in the industrialized system of construction.
● The purpose-made joints are usually used for long span structures where the
application of standard proprietary joints is limited.
● An example of such types of joints is the cruciform gusset plate for connecting
rolled steel sections.
● A survey around the world will reveal that there are over 250 different types of
jointing systems suggested or used in practice, and there are some 50 commercial
firms trying to specialize in the manufacture of proprietary jointing systems for
space frames.
● Unfortunately, many of these systems have not proved attainment of great
success mainly because of the complexity of the connecting method

Connection Types with a Node

SYSTEM OF JOINERY: BOWL
NODE TYPE OR BEARING
TYPE.