Introduction to Learning

Theory and Course Design

Bernard Scott
 Cranfield University
George Roberts
 Oxford Brookes University
 Outline of Programme
1000 - 1015 Introductions

1015 - 1100 1. eLearning and Online Learning

Coffee break
1115 - 1245 2. Introduction to Learning Theory
Lunch
1330 - 1500 3. Introduction to course design
Coffee break
1515 - 1615 4. The why and how of e-learning
Close

Introduction to Learning Technology 2

Workshop Aims
To introduce learning technology practitioners to:

 theories of learning and teaching

 principles and processes of course design

 relevant for the production and delivery of quality

learning experiences in e-learning (flexible,
distributed, distance and blended) courses

Introduction to Learning Technology 3

Introductions

 Introduce yourself

 What is your role in your organisation?

 What do you want from the day?

Introduction to Learning Technology 4

1. eLearning and
Online Learning
1015 - 1100
The Big Picture
 Globalisation
 Liberalisation
 Participation
 Innovation

 Education and training policy replaces industrial

policy as the means by which governments seek
to make regions economically competitive

Introduction to Learning Technology 6

What’s happening, then?
Chips with e-verything
ICT is becoming

Everywhere Ubiquitous
Background Ambient
Personal Adaptive and Aware
Fast High-speed
Mobile Wireless
(wifi and telephony)
Merging Convergent
(TV, radio, learning,
work, leisure)

Multi/multiple media All Connected, Always on

Introduction to Learning Technology 7

Widening participation
Widening participation policies adopted by
successive British governments have been
focused in two conflicting directions:
 emancipatory and empowering for the individual:
stimulate the growth of autonomous, entrepreneurial, IT-
literate, multi-skilled individuals capable of creating and
taking advantage of the opportunities inherent in a post
fordist economy

 ensuring a supply of appropriately skilled workers for

industry: create a compliant low-expectation labour force
inured to the demands of flexibilisation in order to attract
inward investment not on the basis of high skills available
but on the basis of low costs

Introduction to Learning Technology 8

 Learning Technologies
 Multimedia presentations
 Electronic whiteboards
 Interactive classrooms
 CAL, CBT, simulations
 Virtual reality
 Video conferencing
 Online learning

Introduction to Learning Technology 9

Online Learning
 Using the Internet for L&T (DL or blended)
 Learning materials (RBL)
 Other resources
 Computer mediated communication (CMC)
 Computer aided assessment (CAA)
 VLEs, MLEs, LMSs, LCMSs, IMS

Introduction to Learning Technology 10

 Activity
What are some advantages and
disadvantages of OLL?
Note down two points for and two
points against.
Some advantages of OLL (1)
 Flexible re time and place
 Interactive
 Immediate
 Modifiable
 Non-linear
 Richness of resources
 Shared access to resources

Introduction to Learning Technology 12

Some advantages of OLL (2)
 Store and archive files and messages
 Store and process scores
 Adapt to a student’s performance
 Provide formative feedback

Introduction to Learning Technology 13

Some disadvantages of OLL (1)
 Costs to install and maintain
 Costs of materials production or
acquisition
 Training needs (staff and students)
 Accessibility issues

Introduction to Learning Technology 14

Some disadvantages of OLL (2)
 CMC is time intensive
 Difficult to be social
 CAA has restricted set of question styles
 Security issues (confidentiality, plagiarism)
 Copyright and IPR issues

Introduction to Learning Technology 15

Managed Learning Environment
Overview

http://www.jisc.ac.uk/mle/reps/briefings/bp1.html
Introduction to Learning Technology 16
Coffee Break
1100 - 1115
2. Learning Theory
1115 - 1245
 Activity
What is learning?
What do we learn?
What helps us to learn?

Note down your thoughts

Introduction to Learning Technology 19

 Learning Theory: First Principles
 “The environment contains no information.
It is as it is.” “Everything that is said is
said by or to an observer.” Heinz von
Foerster
 Learning is constructive and
conversational

Introduction to Learning Technology 20

 Conversation Theory
 “Man is a system that needs to learn.”
 “Teaching is the control of learning.”
 Adaptive, conversational systems that
provide support (scaffolding) for the
learner
(Pask and Scott, Thomas and Harri-
Augstein, Laurillard)

Introduction to Learning Technology 21

 The Skeleton of a
Conversation
T eac her Lea rner

Receives or offers Receives or offers

explanations in terms Why?
Why questions
questions explanations in terms
of relations between and responses of relations between Why?
topics topics

Offers demonstrations Receives

How questions
or elicits models and
and responses
demonstrations, How?
problem solutions builds models or
solves problems

Modelling facility for performance of tasks

such as model building and problem soving

Figure 1. The “skeleton” of a conversation (after Pask)

A ‘Full’ Learning Conversation
Te ac he r Lea rne r

Wh y of l ea rn i ng

How o f l ea rni ng

How
How aan
ndd w
whhy
y of
of top
top ic
ic

After Thomas and Harri-Augstein

 The Dynamics of Learning (i)
 Uncertainty reduction
 Need for variety
 Awareness/consciousness
 Proceduralisation
 Remembering and forgetting – the roles of
practice and story telling

Introduction to Learning Technology 24

The Dynamics of Learning (ii)
Long term memory

Non-conscious processing

Filter/ Limited capacity

Sensory Response
non-conscious working memory
processes processes
analysis (conscious)

Kinaesthetic

Feedback through environment

(external storage of information)
Typologies of Learning Theory
Lillis (2003)
 Traditions: clusters of culturally and historically
specific beliefs and practices which are forged in
contexts over time.
 Traditions can be mapped on 4 dimensions:
 Academic Disciplines
 Paradigmatic shifts
 Geo-historical contexts
 Ideological positions

Introduction to Learning Technology 26

Mapping traditions
 Academic disciplines
 Social Sciences, Sociolinguistics, Applied linguistics,
Anthropology, Psychology Physical sciences
 and sub traditions within these
 Paradigms
 from abstract “out there” systems to socially situated systems
 from individual cognition to social practice
 from fixed social categories: class, sex, race, profession to
fluid identities
 Geohistorical
 colonial/post-colonial, Anglo Saxon/Franco-German
 Ideological (world views)
 Liberal Humanist, Critical Neo-Marxist, Theocratic, Post-
structuralist
after Lillis 2003

Introduction to Learning Technology 27

Typologies of Learning Theory
Weller (2002)
 Constructivism
 Resource Based Learning
 Collaborative Learning
 Narrative Based Teaching
 Situated Learning

Introduction to Learning Technology 28

Typologies of Learning Theory
Street (1997)
 Autonomous Model
 learning in itself has consequences autonomous of
context
 art for art’s sake; learning is its own reward

 Ideological Model
 learning varies with social context, cultural norms,
discourses
 meanings always embedded in relations of power
 control of definitions and boundaries is contested

Introduction to Learning Technology 29

 Pedagogical Pragmatism: 1, 2, 3, 4

Posture

Face

Stance

Introduction to Learning Technology 30

One Aim: Good Learning
based on

 reciprocity
 authenticity
 credibility

independent of the mode of engagement

Introduction to Learning Technology 31

Two Targets:
“Posture”
 Recipient design
 for whom intended, the learner,
idealised model of learner
 incorporates learning styles theories, and
aspects of learning technology specs and
standards: IMS-LIP, UK-LEAP
 Referee design
 the “boss”, colleagues, funding body,
CAA/QCA, colleagues, super-ego, beliefs

Introduction to Learning Technology 32

Three Positions: “Stance”
Channel
 can we hear each other

Relationship:
 do we understand each other

Topic
 what are we talking about (the subject)

Introduction to Learning Technology 33

 Four Traditions: “face”
positivism: knowledge is “out there”, categorical
 objective-led (behaviourist) pedagogies of external motivations such as
enquiry-based learning, physical simulation and experiment

social perspective: knowledge emergent, constructed

 dominant approaches are exploratory learning and constructivism

tacit communitarianism: common-sense normalisation

 knowledge engineering, and computational approaches such as
organisational learning and intelligent systems

new critical: cognitive disconnect in L&T practice

 project and problem-based learning, applied and action research are
characteristic

Introduction to Learning Technology 34

 Multiple Learning and Teaching Styles

Introduction to Learning Technology 35

 Activity
How do subject areas differ?
How do learners differ?
How do we learn to learn?

Note down your thoughts

Introduction to Learning Technology 36

Lunch!
1245 - 1330
3. Course Design
1330 - 1500
 Course Design
Coopers and Lybrand (1996):

 Up to two thirds of TLTP materials can be

deemed amateurish due to the lack of
sound pedagogy and instructional design

 UK Teaching and Learning Technology

Programme (1990 – cont), c. £40m

Introduction to Learning Technology 39

 Activity
What makes for a good course?

Note down your thoughts

Introduction to Learning Technology 40

Good teaching
 sets ground rules
 provides alternative modes of participation
 exemplifies models of engagement
 gives access to the experience of the
instructor
(cf. Brookfield 2001, Jones 1999)

independent of the mode of engagement

Introduction to Learning Technology 41

Good practice
 encourage student-tutor contact
 encourage student-student co-operation
 encourage active learning
 give prompt feedback
 emphasise time on task
 have and communicate high expectations
 respect diverse talents and ways of
learning

independent of the mode of engagement

Introduction to Learning Technology 42
 Good design
 Permeability: multiple pathways
 Variety: multiple learning & teaching
styles/preferences
 Legibility: multiple literacies, modes and
systems of meaning
 Robustness
 Visual appropriateness
 Richness: complexity at scale
 Personalisation

independent of the mode of engagement

Introduction to Learning Technology 43

Course Design: Principles
A clear mapping between course components
Course Design: Processes
Knowledge and Task Analysis
Task structure (Precedence
Chart)
Concept Maps: Fighting Power
Process Maps: The Doctrinal
Cycle
PART A
MK2 Knowledge Map KEY:
INTRODUCTION Relationship

A2 - DOCTRINE Link

Structures
A1.3 A1.1
Allies MOD Factual Area

A1 Procedures
STRUCTURES
A1.5
A1.2
Management of Part
Civil
Defence
A2.1 A2.2 A1.4 Service
Resources
Joint Doctrine Campaign Planning PJHQ Module

Section

PART C PART B
APPLYING CAPABILITY TO OPERATIONS DELIVERING CAPABILITY
(THE BATTLESPACE) (THE BUSINESS SPACE)
B1
DELIVERING
CAPABILITY -
C2 C1 PROCESSES
BRITISH APPROACH THE BDE IN
TO OPS THE DIV

B1.2
Defence
Plannning Process

C1.1
C5
C5.1 - Bde Structure of Measurement of
THE OPERATIONAL
Planning Process Div and Bde Operational
PLANNING PROCESS
HQs effectiveness feeds B1.3
back into B1.5 B1.1
Equipment
the planning process Measurement Capability
Programme

C6
CONDUCT OF
C7
OPERATIONS
MEASURING
B1.4
CAPABILITY
C6.1 Acquisition
C6.5 Process
Operations Offensive Ops OOTW
use
Capability C6.2 How a Div
Defensive Ops Ouput is measures B2
measured in effectiveness of DELIVERING
C6.3 terms of component Bdes CAPABILITY -
Delay Ops Operational PROCEDURES
Effectiveness
C6.4
Transitional Ops B2.1
Delivering Capability Project
Management
C3 - EQUIPMENT B2.2
CAPABILITY Resource
Management
C3.1 C3.2 C3.3 C3.4 C3.5 C3.6 C3.7 C3.8 C3.9 C3.10 - B2.3
Capability Mod and Change
Manouevre Tactical and
uses CIS ISTAR DBE IBE Support
AD CBRN Strategic Mob
CSS Sim Management
technology
B2.4
C4 Risk Management
SCIENCE &
B2.5
TECHNOLOGY
Personnel
C4.1 C4.2 C4.3 C4.4 C4.5 C4.6 C4.7 Management
Technology STATISTICS EQPT CIS ISTAR MANOEUVRE LETHALITY SURVIVABILITY
DESIGN TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY B2.6
references
R&M
TSO

TSO

Created and managed by Systems Consultants Services Ltd and the MOD
Advance Organiser: MK2 Route
Map
 MK1 Module Template
 Modules, Sections and Lessons have titles
 Module contents listing
 Module Learning Outcomes (LOs)
 Module Introduction
 Section LOs
 Section Introduction
 Lesson LOs
 Lesson Introduction
 Lesson Content
 Activities
 Examples
 Figures, Tables
 Lesson Summary
 Section Summary
 Recommended further reading
 Module Summary
 Self Assessment Questions (SAQs), organised by Section
 SAQ answers, organised by Section
 References
 Learning from Expository Text
 Genre or text object type signposted
 Legible (font, background, location)
 Readable (grammar, sentence length,
vocabulary)
 Comprehensible (local and global
coherence of argument structures)
 Learnable (promotes active learning and
reflection)

Introduction to Learning Technology 53

 Using Activities and Formative
Assessment
Introductory Activity + Feedback > Lesson Content > Follow-on Activity + Feedback

Raise Explain Consolidate,

Awareness Concept Elaborate
Prepare, Demonstrate Practice,
Motivate skill Reinforce

The “tutorial in print” (after Rowntree)

Introduction to Learning Technology 54

Introductory Activity
Discussion:
You probably noted down several
specific elements such as weapons,
personnel of varying skills and other
resources. You may also have
thought about organisational
requirements such as command and
control and communications. All
these elements contribute to the
physical component and can be
grouped into four broad fields -
manpower, equipment, training and
readiness and logistics.
 Reinforcing Activity

Discussion:
There are many examples to choose from. Here are some well known ones. Selection and maintenance of the aim: Take the
Jihad to the heart of the USA and its people. Maintenance of morale: Self-sacrifice for the benefit of one’s country, one’s
politics and one’s religion against a demonised enemy. Offensive action: Utilising four commercial aircraft to attack civilian
targets in the most densely populated area in the enemy’s country.
Security: The security involved allowed the protagonists to carry out their actions almost unimpeded. Surprise: Although
security services were aware of the possibility of such an attack, no one knew where, when or how the action would be
carried out. Concentration of force: Synchronised attack at the heart of commerce, military and (if reports are correct)
government in the White House. Economy of effort: The terrorists used commercial airliners packed with fuel rather than
expensive weapons or having to smuggle weapons onto an aircraft. Their ‘pilots’ knew enough to steer an aircraft and little
else. Flexibility: Four aircraft from different locations gave enough flexibility in the event of compromise/unforeseen
problems. Co-operation: Pan-Arab fundamentalist co-operation and the use of safe houses etc. Sustainability: Overcame
significant logistic and administrative difficulties in sustaining the whole Operation.
 Delivering MK2 – The Full Pedagogic
Model
 Searching and learning about resources
 Mentor support
 Peer-peer learning
 Student tracking and assessment
 Student records
 Integration with residential courses –
blended learning

Introduction to Learning Technology 57

 Designs for Collaborative
Learning
 Group or individual tasks
 Dissemination to peers
 Exchange of critical reviews
 Revise, iterate
 Tutor as learning facilitator, learning
coach, subject matter expert, assessor

Introduction to Learning Technology 58

Tea Break
1500 - 1515
4. Why and How of
eLearning
1515 - 1615
Activity and Discussion: The Why
and How of e-Learning

 Revisit your thoughts about why we

should engage in e-learning

 Revisit your thoughts about how we

should develop and deliver e-learning

Introduction to Learning Technology 61

Learning Technology Affordances

 Time shifting
 Location shifting
 Flexible sequencing
 Enhanced communication
 Distributed collaboration
 Access to resources
 Simulations

Introduction to Learning Technology 62

Overt (and covert) Curricula
Industrial era
 Overt
“3 Rs”: reading, ‘riting and ‘rithmatic
 Covert
punctuality, subordination, repetition

Ubiquitous, networked era

 Overt
flexibility, community, personalisation
 Covert
piecework, normalisation, surveillance

Introduction to Learning Technology 63

Another Hidden Curriculum
 If we wish to discover the truth about an educational
system, we must first look to its assessment procedures
(Rowentree 1987 cited in Gibbs and Simpson 2004)

Time budgeting
 focus on only what is assessed
Cue seeking
 discover “what the teacher wants”

Assessment domination encourages

 Tactical use of time
 Selective negligence

(Gibbs, 2004)

Introduction to Learning Technology 64

Discussion: Make the Links
Requirements Affordances

 Permeability  Time shift

 Variety  Location shift
 Legibility  Flexible sequencing
 Robust  Communication
 Appropriate  Collaboration
 Rich  Access to resources
 Personal  Simulation

Introduction to Learning Technology 65

Learning technology

 Application of discourse technologies

(Fairclough, 2001)

 to foster distributed cognition

Introduction to Learning Technology 66

Blended learning
3-C matrix:

 collocation
low/high (face-to-face vs. distance learning)
 collaboration
low/high (individualised vs. collaborative
learning)
 computerisation
low/high (e-learning vs. traditional print and
communication technologies)

Introduction to Learning Technology 67

 Blended learning: 3-C
hi collocation
hi collaboration traditional laboratory
lo computerisation

hi collocation whiteboards in classrooms

hi collaboration virtual field trips
hi computerisation

lo collocation CACL, online forums

hi collaboration “Learning to teach online”
hi computerisation

hi collocation
lo collaboration video link lecture
hi computerisation

lo collocation
lo collaboration “traditional” OU DL
lo computerisation

lo collocation
lo collaboration CBT training
hi computerisation

Introduction to Learning Technology 68

Modes of Engagement Mode 1 – baseline course administration and learner support (e-Learning
Strategy Action 6a)

 Baseline course administration and learner support (chosen from the

following): use web to distribute course information and carry out course
administration, e.g. aims and objectives, assessment criteria/proformas, past
exam questions and model answers/assessment sheets, timetabling
announcements, reading lists, tutor contact details, course evaluation tools,

Mode 1: FAQs, additional web resources, links to field level resources, course/module
handbook, lecture notes.

Mode 2 – blended learning leading to significant enhancements to learning and

teaching processes
baseline admin and  Communication
 Assessment and feedback

support Provide improved tutor-student,

student-student communications,
Provide improved feedback to
students on their learning via
mainly using discussion boards or computer assisted assessment for
email. Enable students, especially either formative (self-assessment
in disparate groupings and and monitoring of progress) or
locations, to exchange information, summative (examination and
ask questions and discuss issues grading) purposes or both. May

Mode 2: Blended relating to the course. involve electronic setting,

submission and return of student
assignments using digital artefacts
and proformas where objective

Learning testing inappropriate.

 Collaboration
 Quality learning material

Provide a platform for collaborative Develop flexible access to high

student projects, involving shared quality, reusable learning content,
responsibility for resources and which may include structured
outcomes. Students use gateways to web and other
communication tools and shared resources with accompanying self-

Mode 3: directory to collaborate on task

processes and outcomes.
paced independent learning
activities, interactive tutorials with
feedback, simulations, study and
learning skills resources and

FDL activities fostering independent

learning.

Mode 3 – on-line course/module

 Develop course/module primarily on-line, incorporating all or most of the

above, for flexible delivery, allowing learners to learn at times and places of
their choosing. Likely to include learning materials, communication between
tutor and students, assessment and monitoring of progress, learner support
and course administration.

Introduction to Learning Technology 69

Thank you!
 References and Resources
 Gibbs, Graham and Claire Simpson (2004), “Conditions under which assessment
supports students’ learning” in LATHE: Learning and Teaching in Higher
Education 1(1), 3-31
 Harri-Augstein, S and Thomas, L F (1991). Learning Conversations, London,
Routledge.
 Laurillard, D (2002). Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational
Framework for the Effective Use of Learning Technologies (2nd Ed), Routledge,
London
 Lillis, Theresa (2003), “Mapping the traditions of a social perspective on
language and literacy” in Goodman et al, Language, Literacy and Education,
Trentham/Open University
 Pask, G (1975). Conversation, Cognition and Learning, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
 Pask, G and Scott, B (1973). "CASTE: a system for exhibiting learning strategies
and regulating uncertainty", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, 5, pp. 17-52.
 Rowntree, D (1990). Teaching Through Self-Instruction: How to Develop Open
Learning Materials, Kogan Page, London.
 Ryan, S, Scott, B, Freeman, H and Patel, D (2000). The Virtual University: The
Internet and Resource Based Learning, Kogan Page, London.
 Scott, B et al (2004). The Online Learning Knowledge Garden,
http://ollkg.rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk.
 Street, Brian (1997), “The implications of the ‘New Literacy Studies’ for literacy
education” in Goodman et al, Language, Literacy and Education, Trentham/Open
University
 Weller, Martin (2002) Delivering Learning on the Net. KoganPage,
RoutledgeFalmer

Introduction to Learning Technology 71