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Discrete Structures DSCR211: Chapter 1: Formal Logic

This document introduces discrete mathematics and formal logic. It discusses that discrete mathematics involves distinct, countable values and examples of discrete structures. The goals of studying discrete math are discussed, including mathematical reasoning, combinatorial analysis, discrete structures, algorithmic thinking and applications. Formal logic is then introduced, including definitions of logic, propositions, truth values, logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, negation and others. Truth tables are discussed and used to evaluate compound statements. The document concludes with exercises for students to complete.

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Daisy Mangahas Balerite
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121 views

Discrete Structures DSCR211: Chapter 1: Formal Logic

This document introduces discrete mathematics and formal logic. It discusses that discrete mathematics involves distinct, countable values and examples of discrete structures. The goals of studying discrete math are discussed, including mathematical reasoning, combinatorial analysis, discrete structures, algorithmic thinking and applications. Formal logic is then introduced, including definitions of logic, propositions, truth values, logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, negation and others. Truth tables are discussed and used to evaluate compound statements. The document concludes with exercises for students to complete.

Uploaded by

Daisy Mangahas Balerite
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Discrete Structures

DSCR211

Chapter 1: Formal Logic


Introduction to Logic
Mathematics can be broadly classified into two categories −
 Continuous Mathematics
 Discrete Mathematics

Continuous Mathematics is based upon continuous number line or


the real numbers. It is characterized by the fact that between any two
numbers, there are almost always an infinite set of numbers. For example,
a function in continuous mathematics can be plotted in a smooth curve
without breaks.
Discrete Mathematics, on the other hand, involves distinct values;
i.e. between any two points, there are a countable number of points. For
example, if we have a finite set of objects, the function can be defined as
a list of ordered pairs having these objects, and can be presented as a
complete list of those pairs.
Introduction to Logic

 Discrete Mathematics is a branch of mathematics


involving discrete elements that uses algebra and
arithmetic. It is increasingly being applied in the practical
fields of mathematics and computer science. It is a very
good tool for improving reasoning and problem-solving
capabilities.
Introduction to Logic

 Goals of Discrete Mathematics


 Mathematical Reasoning – Students must understand mathematical
reasoning in order to read, comprehend and construct
mathematical arguments. It includes the discussion of mathematical
logic which serves as a foundation for the subsequent discussion of
method of proof.
 Combinatorial Analysis – An important problem – solving skill is the
ability to count or enumerate objects; it includes the discussion of
basic techniques of counting.
 Discrete Structures – a course in discrete mathematics should teach
students how to work with discrete structures, which are the
abstract mathematical structures used to represent discrete objects
and relationships between these objects. These discrete structure
include set, permutations, relations, graphs, trees, and finite – state
machines.
Introduction to Logic

 Algorithmic Thinking – certain classes of problems are


solved by the specification of an algorithm, Aftermath,
an algorithm has been described a computer program
can be constructed implementing it.
 Application and Modeling – Discrete mathematics has
applications to almost every conceivable area of study.
There are many applications to computer science and
data networking .
Introduction to Logic
 What is a logic?
it is technically defined as “the science or study of how to evaluate
arguments and reasoning.”
 Logical reasoning
it is used in mathematics to prove theorems.
 Mathematical Logic ( symbolic logic )
it is a branch of mathematics with close connections to computer
science.
Four (4) Divisions
1. Set Theory
2. Model Theory
3. Recursion Theory
4. Proof Theory
Mathematical Logic
 Definition: Methods of reasoning, provides rules and
techniques to determine whether an argument is valid
 Theorem: a statement that can be shown to be true
(under certain conditions)
 Example: If x is an even integer, then x + 1 is an odd
integer
 This statement is true under the condition that x is an integer is true.
Mathematical Logic
 A statement, or a proposition, is a declarative sentence
that is either true or false, but not both
 Uppercase letters denote propositions
 Examples:
P: 2 is an even number (true)
Q: 7 is an even number (false)
R: A is a vowel (true)
 The following are not propositions:
P: My cat is beautiful
Q: My house is big
Mathematical Logic

 Truth value
 One of the values “truth” (T) or “falsity” (F) assigned to
a statement
Examples:
1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
2. What day it is?
3. Help me, please.
4. He is handsome.
Logical Connectives
 Proportional Variable
it is a variable which used to represent a statement.
 Logical connectives
are used to combine simple statement which are
referred as compound statement.
 Compound statement
it is a statement composed of two or more simple
statements connected by logical connectives. (and, or, if then,
not, if and only if, exclusive – or)
 Simple (atomic) statement
a statement which is not compound.
Logical Connectives
Six (6) main logical connectives
1. Conjunction
2. Disjunction
3. Negation
4. Conditional
5. Bi-conditional
6. Exclusive - or
Logical Connectives
 Conjunction
 Let p and q be statements. The conjunction of
p and q, written p ^ q , is the statement formed
by joining statements p and q using the word
“and”
 The statement p ^ q is true if both p and q are true; otherwise

p ^ q is false.
 Truth Table for Conjunction:
Logical Connectives
 Disjunction
 Let p and q be statements. The disjunction of
p and q, written p v q , is the statement formed
by joining statements p and q using the word
“or”
The statement p v q is true if at least one of the
statements p and q is true; otherwise p v q is false
The symbol v is read “or”

Truth Table for Disjunction:


Logical Connectives
 Negation
The negation of the statement p is
denoted by ~ p where ~ is the symbol for
not.
Ifp is true
The symbol ~ is read as not. , ~ is false.

Truth Table for Disjunction:


Logical Connectives
 Conditional or Implication
 Let p and q be statements. The statement “if p
then q” is called an implication or condition.
 The conditional statement p  q is false only
when p is true and q is false.
 The implication “if p then q” is written p  q
 p is called the hypothesis, q is called the
conclusion
 Truth Table for Implication:
Logical Connectives
 Bi–conditional (Bi-implication)
 Let p and q be statements. The statement “p if and only
if q” is called the bi-implication or bi-conditional of
p and q
 Ifp and q are true or both false, then p  q is true; if p
and q have opposite truth values, then p  q is false.
 The bi-conditional “p if and only if q” is written p  q
 “p if and only if q”
 Truth Table for the Bi-conditional:
Logical Connectives
 Exclusive – or
 The exclusive – or of the statement p and q is the
compound statement p exclusive – or q.
 Symbolic, p xor q, where xor is the symbol for exclusive
or.
 If p and q are true or both false, then p xor q is false; if
p and q have opposite truth values, then p xor q is
true.
Logical Connectives

 Precedence of logical connectives is:


 ~ highest


^ second highest
 v third highest
→ fourth highest
↔ fifth highest
Truth Tables
 Constructthe truth table for each of the following
statements:
1. ~p v ~q
2. p  (p  ~q )
3. (~p ^ q) v (p ^~q)
4. (p  q) v (q ^ ~r)
Compound Statement
 Three (3) important classes of compound
statement:
1. Tautology is a compound statement that is true for all
possible combinations of the truth values of the
propositional variables also called logical true.
2. Contradiction is a compound statement that is false
for all possible combinations of the truth values of its
propositional variables also called logically false or
absurdity.
3. Contingency is a compound statement that can be
either true or false depending on the truth values of
the propositional variables are neither a tautology nor
a contradiction.
Compound Statement
 Example: Write the truth table for each of the following
compound statements and determine whether the
compound statement is tautology, contradiction or
contingency.
1. (~p ^ q) → q
2. (p → q) (p →~q)
3. (~p v q) xor (p → q)
Logical Equivalence
 Logically Implies
A statement formula p is said to logically imply a
statement formula q if the statement formula p → q is a
tautology. If p logically implies q, then symbolically we
write p → q.
 Logically Equivalent
A statement formula p is said to be logically equivalent
to a statement formula q if the statement formula
p ↔ q is a tautology. If p is logically equivalent to q,
then symbolically we write p q.

Variation of Conditional Statement

 Implication
 Let p: Today is Sunday and q: I will wash the car.
 Conditional : p  q :
If today is Sunday, then I will wash the car
 The converse of this implication is written q  p
If I wash the car, then today is Sunday
 The inverse of this implication is written ~p  ~p
If today is not Sunday, then I will not wash the car
 The contrapositive of this implication is written ~q  ~p
If I do not wash the car, then today is not Sunday
END……
 Please do exercises :
 Exercises 1.1 page 25
 Exercises 1.2 A , B and C page 26
 Exercises 1.3 page 27
 Exercises 1.4 page 28
 Exercises 1.5 A and B page 29

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