Introduction to Calculus

Bhaskara Aacharya (1114 – 1185)

Legendary Indian Mathematician who gave preliminary concepts of
infinitesimal calculus and mathematical analysis , in his work , Siddhanta
Shiromani.
• Calculus is the mathematics of change.
• It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus, which are
related by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
• Differential calculus determines varying rates of change. It helps solve
problems involving force

• Integration is the "inverse" (or opposite) of differentiation or a sum of series. It

measures accumulations over periods of change. Integration can find volumes
and lengths of curves, measure forces and work, etc.
• Calculus has widespread applications in science, economics, finance and
engineering.
2.3 Introduction to Functions

Definition of a Relation
A relation is any set of ordered pairs.
The set of all first components of the
ordered pairs is called the domain of
the relation, and the set of all second
components is called the range of the
relation.
 Definition of a Function

A function is a correspondence between

two sets X and Y that assings to each
element x of set X exactly one element y
of Y .
 Domain and Range

For each element x in X , the

corresponding element y in Y is called
the value of the function at x. The set X
is called the domain of the function, and
the set of all function values, Y , is called
the range of the function.
 Ex 1: Determine whether each
relation is a function.
a. {(4,5), (6, 7), (8,8)}
b. {(5, 6), (4, 7), (6, 6), (6, 7)}

Solution We begin by making a figure

for each relation that shows set X , the
domain, and set Y , the range.
 Solution for part (a)

X Y The figure shows that every

4 5 element in the domain
6 7
8 8 corresponds to exactly one
Domain Range element in the range.
No two ordered pairs in the given relation have
the same first component different second
components. Thus, the relation is a function
 Solution for part (b)

X Y
4 6 The figure shows that 6
5
6 7 corresponds to both 6 and 7.
Domain Range
If any element in the domain corresponds to
more than one element in the range, the
relation is not a function, Thus, the relation
is not a function.
 Function Notation

y  f ( x)
The variable x is called the independent
variable, because it can be assigned any
of the permissible numbers from the domain.
The variable y is called the dependent
variable, because its value depends on x.
 Function Notation

The special notation f ( x), read "f of x"

or "f at x," represents the value of the
function at the number x.
The notation f ( x) does not mean
"f times x."
Ex 2: Determine whether each equation
defines y as a function of x.

1. x  y  25
2. x  y  25
2
 Solution

Solve each equation for y in terms of

x. If two or more values of y can be
obtained for a given x, the equation
is not a function.
1. x  y  25
y  25  x
 Solution continued

From this last equation we can see that

for each value of x, there is one and
only one value of y. Thus, the equation
defines y as a function of x.
 Solution of 2
x  y  25
2

y  25  x
2

y   25  x

The  in this last equation shows that

there are two values of y for x in the domain of
f i.e the interval (  ,5). For this reason
the equation does not define y as a function of x.
 Finding a Function’s Domain

If a function f does not model data or

verbal conditions, its domain is the
largest set of real numbers for which the
value of f ( x) is a real number.
Finding a Function’s Domain

Exclude from a function's domain real

numbers that cause division by zero
and real numbers that result in an even
root of a negative number.
Ex 5: Find the domain of each
function

a. f ( x)  8 x  5 x  2
2

2
b. g ( x) 
x5
c. h( x)  x  2
 Solution part a

The function f ( x)  8 x  5 x  2 contains

2

neither division nor an even root.

The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.
 Solution part b

2
The function g ( x)  contains division.
x5
Because division by zero is undefined, we
must exclude from the domain values of x
that cause x  5 to be 0. Thus x cannot equal
to  5. The domain of function g is {x | x  5}.
 Solution part c

The function h( x)  x  2 contains an even

root. Because only non-negative numbers
have real square roots, the quantity under the
radical sign, x  2 must be greater than or
equal to 0. Thus, x  2  0 or x  2
Therefore the domain of h is { x | x  2}
or the interval [ 2, ).
 Limit

We say that the limit of f ( x) as x approaches a is L and write

lim f ( x)  L
x a

if the values of f ( x) approach L as x approaches a.

y  f ( x)
L

a
 3 x if x  2
c) Find lim f ( x) where f ( x)  
x 2
1 if x  2

lim f ( x) = lim  3 x
x 2 x 2
6  3 lim x
x 2

Note: f (-2) = 1  3(2)  6

is not involved -2
 The  - Definition of Limit
We say lim f ( x)  L if and only if
xa
given a positive number  , there exists a positive  such that
if 0 | x  a |  , then | f ( x)  L |  .

L
L
L 

y  f ( x)
a
a  a 
This means that if we are given a
small interval ( L   , L   ) centered at L,
then we can find a (small) interval ( a   , a   )

such that for all x  a in ( a   , a   ),

f ( x) is in ( L   , L   ).
Examples
1. Show that lim(3 x  4)  10.
x2
Let   0 be given. We need to find a   0 such that
if | x - 2 |  , then | (3 x  4)  10 |  .
But | (3x  4)  10 || 3 x  6 | 3 | x  2 | 
 
if | x  2 | So we choose   .
3 3
1
2. Show that lim  1.
x 1 x

Let   0 be given. We need to find a   0 such that

if | x  1|  , then | 1  1|  .
x
1 x 1 1
But |  1|| | | x  1| . What do we do with the
x x x
x?
 1
If we decide | x  1| , then 1  x  3 . 1/2 1 3/2
2 2 2
1
And so <2.
x
1 1
Thus |  1| | x  1| 2 | x  1| .
x x

 1 
Now we choose   min  ,  .
3 2
One-Sided Limit
One-Sided Limits
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals L
written: lim f ( x)  L
xa

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
right of a.
y  f ( x)
L

a
The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals M
written: lim f ( x)  M
xa

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
left of a.
y  f ( x)

M
a
Examples
Examples of One-Sided Limit
 x 2 if x  3
1. Given f ( x)  
2x if x  3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  6
x 3 x 3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x)  lim x 2  9
x 3 x 3
 More Examples
 x  1, if x  0
2. Let f ( x)  
 x  1, if x  0. Find the limits:

a) lim f ( x)  lim ( x  1)
x 0
 0 1  1
x 0
b) lim f ( x)  lim ( x  1)  0  1  1
x 0 x 0

c) lim f ( x)  lim(

x  1)  1  1  2
x 1 x 1

d) lim f ( x)  lim( x  1)  11  2

x 1 
x 1
 A Theorem
lim f ( x)  L if and only if lim f ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  L.
xa x a x a

This theorem is used to show a limit does not

exist.
 x  1, if x  0
For the function f ( x)  
 x  1, if x  0.
lim f ( x) does not exist because lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  1.
x 0 x 0 x 0

But
lim f ( x)  2 because lim f ( x)  2 and lim f ( x)  2.
x 1 x 1 x 1
 Limit
Theorems
If c is any number, lim f ( x)  L and lim g ( x)  M , then
x a x a

a) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M b) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M
x a xa

c) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M
xa
d)
xa 
lim f ( x )
g ( x)   L , ( M  0)
M

e) lim  c  f ( x)   c  L f) lim  f ( x)   Ln
n
x a
x a

g) lim c  c h) lim x  a
xa x a

i) lim x n  a n j) lim f ( x)  L , ( L  0)
xa x a
Examples Using Limit Rule
Ex. lim  x  1  lim x  lim1
2 2
x 3 x 3 x 3

 
2
 lim x  lim1
x 3 x 3

 32  1  10

2x 1 lim  2 x  1 2 lim x  lim1

x 1
Ex. lim   x 1 x 1
x 1 3 x  5 lim  3 x  5  3lim x  lim 5
x 1 x 1 x 1

2 1 1
 
35 8
 More Examples
1. Suppose lim f ( x)  4 and lim g ( x)  2. Find
x 3 x 3

a) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim
x 3
f ( x)  lim g ( x)
x 3
x 3
 4  (2)  2

b) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x 3
x 3 x 3

 4  (2)  6
 2 f ( x)  g ( x)  lim 2 f ( x)  lim g ( x) 2  4  (2) 5
c) lim    x 3 x 3
 
x 3
 f ( x) g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x) 4  (2) 4
x 3 x 3
 Indeterminate Forms

Indeterminate forms occur when substitution in the limit

results in 0/0. In such cases either factor or rationalize
the expressions.
0
x5 Notice form
Ex. lim
x 5 x 2  25 0
x5
 lim Factor and cancel
x 5  x  5   x  5 
common factors
1 1
 lim 
x 5  x  5  10
 More Examples
 x 3  ( x  3)( x  3) 
a) lim  
 = lim  
 x9   ( x  9)( x  3) 
x 9 x 9

 x 9   1  1
 lim   lim 6
 x 9  x 3
x 9 ( x  9)( x  3)
  

 4  x2   (2  x)(2  x) 
b) lim  2  = lim 
x 2 2 x  x 3
  x 2  x 2 (2  x ) 

 2 x
= lim  2 
x 2
 x 
2  (2) 4
  1
(2) 2
4
 The Squeezing Theorem
If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x) when x is near a, and if
lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  L, then lim g ( x)  L
xa x a xa

Example: Show that lim x 2 sin   0.

x 
 x  DNE!
x 0
Note that we cannot use product rule because lim sin 
x 0

 
But  1  sin 
x  
 1 and so  x 2  x 2 sin   x 2 .
x
Since lim x 2  lim(  x 2 )  0, we use the Squeezing Theorem to conclude
x 0 x 0

 x   0.
lim x 2 sin 
x 0

See Graph
 Continuity

A function f is continuous at the point x = a if

the following are true:
i ) f (a ) is defined
ii ) lim f ( x) exists
x a

f(a)

a
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if
the following are true:
i ) f (a ) is defined
ii ) lim f ( x) exists
x a
iii ) lim f ( x)  f (a )
x a f(a)

a
Example
s At which value(s) of x is the given function
discontinuous?
2

1. f ( x)  x  2 x 9
2. g ( x) 
x3
Continuous everywhere
Continuous everywhere
lim( x  2)  a  2
xa
except at x  3

and so lim f ( x)  f (a) g (3) is undefined

x a
4

6 2

4 -6 -4 -2 2 4

-2

2
-4

-6
-4 -2 2 4

-2 -8

-10
  x  2, if x  1 1, if x  0
3. h( x)   4. F ( x)  
1, if x  1 1, if x  0
lim F ( x)  1 and lim F ( x)  1
lim h( x )  1
x 1
and lim h( x)
x 1
3 x 0 x 0

Thus F is not cont. at x  0.

Thus h is not cont. at x=1.
F is continuous everywhere else
h is continuous everywhere else
5

3
4

3 2

2
1

-10 -5 5 10

-2 2 4
-1
-1

-2
-2

-3 -3
 Continuous Functions
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

f  g , fg , and f  g (a)  0  are continuous

g
at x  a

A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at

every point x.

A rational function R( x)  p( x) q( x) is continuous

at every point x in its domain.
Intermediate Value Theorem
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]
and L is any number between f (a) and f (b), then there
is at least one number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.

y  f ( x)
f (b)
f (c) = L
f (a)

a c b
Example

2
Given f ( x)  3 x  2 x  5,
Show that f ( x)  0 has a solution on  1, 2  .

f (1)  4  0
f (2)  3  0

f (x) is continuous (polynomial) and since f (1) < 0

and f (2) > 0, by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there exists a c on [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0.
 Limits at Infinity
1 1
For all n > 0, lim n  lim n  0
x  x x  x

1
provided that n is defined.
x
2 3  5  1
3x  5 x  1 x x 2 Divide
Ex. xlim  lim 2
 2  4x 2 x  2 4 by x
x2

lim 3  lim 5
x  x 
 x   lim  1 x 
x 
2

3 0 0

3

lim 2
x 
 x   lim 4
2
x 
04 4
 More Examples
 2 x3 3x 2 2 
 2 x3  3x 2  2   3
 3  3 
1. lim  3
x 
 x  x 2
 100 x  1

  lim  3 x 2 x x 
x  x
  x  100 x  1 
 3 
x x 3
x 3
x 3


 3 2 
 2  x  x3 
 lim  
x  1 100
1  2  3 1
 x x x 

2
 2
1
  4 x  5 x  21 
2  x2  2x  4 
2. lim  3  3. lim  
x  7 x  5 x 2  10 x  1 x 
 12 x  31 
 
 x2 2x 4 
 4 x 2 5 x 21
 3 3
    

x 3
x x
  lim  x x x
 lim  3 2  x 
 12 x  31 
x  7 x 5 x 10 x 1
   x x 
 3  3  3  3 
 x x x x 
 4 5 21   4
 x2 x 
 
 x x 2 x3 
 lim  
x  5 10
7  2  3
1
  lim  
 x x x 
x 
 12  31 
0  x 
 2
7 
12
0 
 4. lim
x 
 x 1  x
2


 lim 
 x2  1  x  x 1  x 
2


1 
x 
 x2  1  x 
 

 x2  1  x2 
 lim  
x 
 x 1  x 
2

 1 
 lim  
x 
 x 1  x 
2

1 1
  0
 
 Infinite Limits 20

For all n > 0, 15

10

1 5

lim 
 x  a
n -8 -6 -4 -2 2
x a -5

-10

-15

-20
40

1
30

lim   if n is even 20

 x  a
n
x a 10

-2 2 4 6
-10

-20

1 20

lim   if n is odd 15

 x  a
n
x a 10

-8 -6 -4 -2 2
-5

More Graphs -10

-15
 Examples
Find the limits
 3x 2  2 x  1   3 2  1 2  3   
1. lim   = lim 
x x   
x 0 2x 2 x 0 
 2  2
   
 2x 1 
2. lim    = lim
 2x 1 
x 3  2 x  6  x 3  2( x  3) 
 
 
40

20

-8 -6 -4 -2 2

-20
 Limit and Trig Functions
From the graph of trigs functions
f ( x)  sin x and g ( x)  cos x
1
1

0.5 0.5

-10 -5 5 10 -10 -5 5 10

-0.5 -0.5

-1
-1

we conclude that they are continuous everywhere

lim sin x  sin c and lim cos x  cos c
x c x c
 Tangent and Secant
Tangent and secant are continuous everywhere in their
domain, which is the set of all real numbers
x  
2
,  3
2
,  5
2
,  7
2
, y  sec x
15
30

y  tan x 20
10

5
10

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-5
-10
-10
-20
-15
-30
 Examples
a) lim  sec x   b) lim  sec x 
x   2  2
x 

c) lim

x  3 

tan x   d) lim

x  3 

tan x  
2 2

e) lim cot x   f) lim tan x  1

x 
x  4

cos x 0
g) lim cot x  xlim  0
x  3 
2
 3  sin x
2 1
 Limit and Exponential
Functions
y  a , a 1
x

10
10
y  a , 0  a 1
x

8
8
6
6

4
4

2
2

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-2 -2

The above graph confirm that exponential

functions are continuous everywhere.
lim a  a
x c
x c
 Asymptotes
The line y  L is called a horizontal asymptote
of the curve y  f ( x) if eihter
lim f ( x)  L or lim f ( x)  L.
x  x 

The line x  c is called a vertical asymptote

of the curve y  f ( x) if eihter
lim f ( x)   or lim f ( x)  .
x c x c
 Examples
Find the asymptotes of the graphs of the functions

x 1
2
1. f ( x)  2 (iii) lim f ( x)  1.
x 1 x 
(i) lim f ( x)   Therefore the line y  1
x 1

Therefore the line x  1 is a horizonatl asymptote.

10

is a vertical asymptote. 7.5

(ii) lim f ( x)  . 2.5

x 1 -4 -2 2 4

Therefore the line x  1

-2.5

-5

is a vertical asymptote. -7.5

-10
 x 1
2. f ( x)  2
x 1
 x 1  (iii) lim f ( x)  0.
(i) lim f ( x)  lim  2  x 
x 1 x 1
 x 1  Therefore the line y  0
 x 1   1  1
= lim    lim    . is a horizonatl asymptote.
x 1
 ( x  1)( x  1)  x 1  x  1  2
Therefore the line x  1 10

7.5

is NOT a vertical asymptote. 5

2.5

(ii) lim f ( x)  . -4 -2 2 4

x 1 -2.5

Therefore the line x  1

-5

-7.5

is a vertical asymptote.
-10