NEW ENERGY SYSTEMS

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 Module I
Direct Energy Conversion Systems: Basic principles of
thermoelectric and thermionic generations- Thermoelectric effects-
Design and selection of materials. Principle of MHD Generators –
Choice of generator parameters –Applications. Fuel cells-
Thermodynamics of fuel cells- Selection of fuel and operating
conditions- Practical fuel cells – The Redox cell- Merits and
demerits. Photoelectric conversion – Conceptual Description of
photovoltaic effect –Solar cell – Materials and prospects .
 Module II
Nuclear fusion- Fusion fuels and reactions- Sustained fusion
reaction-Production and containment of plasma – Fusion –
breeder concept. Solar energy – Terms and definitions-
Applications- Solar collectors and Concentrations- performance
analysis of flat plate collectors- Solar thermal devices – Solar
power generation- Thermal storage. Ocean Power- Resources-
Principle of OTEC systems- Ocean wave energy conversion
systems- Tidal power.
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 Module III
Wind Energy- Fundamentals and Applications- Wind turbine- generator
systems- Wind forms- Solar – wind hybrid. Geothermal Energy-
Energy resources – Geothermal electrical power plants – Non-electric
applications- Biogas energy- Principle of biogas production- Biogas
plants- Design and construction- socio- economic relevance.
Hydrogen- Introduction and Applications- Production, Storage and
Transportation – production and application of methanol.
 References :
 R. A. Coobme – “An Introduction to Direct Energy Conversion”,
Isaac Pitman & Son Ltd.
 Sheldon S. L. Chang – “Energy Conversion”, Prentice Hall Inc.
 Rao & Parulekar – “ Energy Technology”, Khanna Publishers.
 G. D. Rai, “Non- Conventional Energy Sources”
 Duff ice & Beckman, ‘Solar Energy Thermal Processes”, John
wiley & Sons, New York.

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MODULE - I

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Nature of Energy
 Energy is all around you!
◦ You can hear energy as sound.
◦ You can see energy as light.
◦ And you can feel it as wind.

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 Nature of Energy

 What is energy that it can be involved in so many different

activities?

◦ Energy can be defined as the ability to do work.

◦ If an object or organism does work (exerts a force over a

distance to move an object) the object or organism uses
energy.

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 Thermal Electromagnetic
Sound

Types of
Radiant Energy Nuclear

Mechanical Electrical Chemical

Renewable Non-renewable

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 Renewable Energy
Those sources of energy which are being produced
continuously in nature and will never be exhausted, are
called renewable sources of energy.

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 Non-renewable Energy
Those sources of energy which have been
produced in nature over a very, very long time
and cannot be quickly replaced when
exhausted, are called non renewable sources
of energy.

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 Energy Conversion

 Energy can be changed from one form to another. Changes

in the form of energy are called energy conversions.

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Energy conversions

 All forms of energy can be converted into other forms.

◦ The sun’s energy through solar cells can be converted
directly into electricity.
◦ Green plants convert the sun’s energy (electromagnetic)
into starches and sugars (chemical energy).

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Other energy conversions
◦ In an electric motor, electromagnetic energy is converted
to mechanical energy.
◦ In a battery, chemical energy is converted into
electromagnetic energy.
◦ The mechanical energy of a waterfall is converted to
electrical energy in a generator.

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 Energy Conversions

 In an automobile engine, fuel

is burned to convert
chemical energy into heat
energy. The heat energy is
then changed into
mechanical energy.

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Direct Energy Conversion (DEC)
 DEC is the process of transformation of one form of energy
to another form without passing through an intermediate
stage.
 Thermoelectric generator
 Thermionic generator
 Magneto Hydro Dynamic (MHD) power generation
 Electro Gas-Dynamic generator (EGD)
 Fuel cells
 Solar cells
 Nuclear batteries

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 Thermoelectric power generator is a device that
converts the heat energy into electrical energy
based on the principles of Seebeck effect

 THERMOELECTRIC EFFECTS
a. Seebeck effect
b. Peltier effect
c. Thomson effect

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Seebeck effect
When the junctions of two different metals are
maintained at different temperature, the emf is
produced in the circuit. This is known as Seebeck
effect.

The conductor 1 is maintained at

T+∆T temperature
The conductor 2 is maintained at
temperature ‘T’.
Since the junctions are
maintained at different
temperature, the emf ‘U’ flows
across the circuit.
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Seebeck effect

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Peltier effect: Whenever current passes through the
circuit of two dissimilar conductors, depending on
the current direction, either heat is absorbed or
released at the junction of the two conductors. This
is known as Peltier effect.

absorbed

released

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Peltier effect

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 Principle, construction and working of
Thermoelectric power generator

Heat
Thermoelectric power generator input
based on the principle of Hot
Seebeck effect that when the junctio
n
junctions of two different metals P- N-
are maintained at different typ typ
temperature, the emf is produced e e
Cold
in the circuit junctio
n
Heat
ejectio Power
n output

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Construction
Thermoelectric power generation (TEG) devices typically
use special semiconductor materials, which are
optimized for the Seebeck effect.

The simplest thermoelectric power generator consists of

a thermocouple, comprising a p-type and n-type
material.

Heat is applied into one side of the couple and rejected

from the opposite side.

An electrical current is produced, proportional to the

temperature gradient between the hot and cold
junctions.

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Therefore, for any TEPG, there are four
basic component required such as

• Heat source (fuel)

• P and N type
semiconductor stack
(TE module)
• Heat sink (cold side)
• Electrical load
(output voltage)

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• The figure shows the construction of thermoelectric
power generator.
• There is a burner in which the propane fuel is used as
heating source in one side.
• The exhaust is used to transmit a burnt fuel.
• On the other side, a cold junction is kept.
• The thermoelectric module (TE) (consist of number of
P- type and N-type semiconductor pellets connected
in series or parallel depending on the served load)) is
kept in between the hot and cold junction.
• The electrical out (load) is taken from the TE module.

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Advantages

• Easy maintenance: They works electrically without

any moving parts so they are virtually
maintenance free.

• Environment friendly: Thermoelectric generators

produce no pollution. Therefore they are eco friendly
generators.

• Compact and less weight: The overall

thermoelectric cooling system is much smaller and
lighter than a comparable mechanical system.

• High Reliability: Thermoelectric modules exhibit very

high reliability due to their solid-state construction
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•

•No noise: They can be used in any orientation and

in zero gravity environments. Thus they are popular
in many aerospace applications.

• Convenient Power Supply: They operate

directly from a DC power source.

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 Thermoelectric materials
• The good thermoelectric materials should possess
Large Seebeck coefficients(S)
𝐒 = ∆𝑽/ ∆𝑻 Where; 𝐒 – Seebeck Coefficient ∆𝑽 –
Voltage Difference ∆𝑻 – Temperature Gradient
High electrical conductivity
Low thermal conductivity
Figure Of Merit: The potential of a material for
thermoelectric applications is determined in large part
to a measure of the material’s dimensionless figure of
merit,
Z = S𝟐𝝈𝑻/𝒌 Z = S𝟐𝑻/𝝆𝒌
𝒌 = 𝒌e + 𝒌g
Power Factor Under a given temperature difference, the
ability of a material to produce useful electrical power
is quantified by its power factor, Power Factor = σS2
Device efficiency ,ɳ = 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅/𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒋𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐n
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• The example for thermoelectric materials

• BismuthTelluride (Bi2Te3),
• Lead Telluride (PbTe),
• SiliconGermanium (SiGe),
• Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb)

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Thermionic power generator
(TPG)
Introduction

 Thermionic power generator (TPG) is a device that

converts heat energy into electrical energy.

 Thermionic emission is the basis for the working of

this system.

 The thermionic emission is the emission of

electrons from metal surface due to heat.

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• A thermionic energy converter (or) thermionic power
generator is a device consisting of two electrodes
placed near one another in a vacuum.
• One electrode is normally called the cathode, or
emitter, and the other is called the anode, or plate.
• At ordinary temperatures, almost none of the
electrons can acquire enough energy to
escape.
• However, when the cathode is very hot, the
electron energies are greatly increased by thermal
motion.
• At sufficiently high temperatures, a considerable
number of electrons are able to escape.
• The liberation of electrons from a hot surface is
called thermionic emission
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Thermionic effect
 Thermionic effect is the ejection of electron from the heated
metal surface.
 The number of electron emitted from the metal surface
depends on temperature and work function.

Work function(φ)
 For Electrons to leave the surface of the metal, they
have to be supplied with enough Energy.
 We call the minimum energy required to allow an electron
to be liberated from a material as its WORK
FUNCTION(φ) .
 Work Function differs from material to material – usually a
few eV

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Principle, Construction and working of
Thermionic power generator (TPG)

Principle
Thermionic power generator is based on the principles of
Thermionic effect that the electrons are emitted from a hot
metal surface and responsible for the production of
electricity.
Construction
• The TPG consist of tungsten metal, which is
negatively charged cathode acts as an emitter.
• There is positively charged electrode is called
collector. It is collecting the ejected electrons. The
emitter and collector are kept in a vacuum quartz tube.

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 Thermionic Power generator

Emitte Quartz Collector

r tube

Thermal
energy VL

RL

Electrical
energy

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Working
• The electrons within a metal can be treated as
"electron gas" in which individual outer most
electrons are capable of moving freely under
the influence of a field.

• This movement of electrons is responsible for the

function of electric circuits.

• At the surface of a metal, a potential barrier exists

which prevents the electrons from escaping unless
certain conditions are met. This concept can be
explained as follows.

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 Electrons escaped from cathode

Surface of cathode C
Electrons
Promoted from EF


B
EF

• It is known from the free electron theory, at 0K, all the energy
levels up to EF (fermi energy) are completely filled and all the
energy level above the EF are completely empty.

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• The energy level from the surface of metallic cathode
to the level of EF (BC in figure) is the potential energy
barrier called work function (.).
• If any electron wants to escape from the surface of
the metallic cathode, they should cross this potential
barrier.
• At 0K, all the electrons are bound within fermi energy
level and cannot escape from the surface of cathode
(emitter).
• When the thermal energy is supplied on the emitter
side, some of the electrons are promoted to above the
fermi level.

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• These activated electrons can cross the potential
energy barrier and escape from the surface of
cathode and responsible for the current production.
• As long as the temperature increased, the number of
electrons escapes from the surface of emitter
increases. Collector collects the emitted electrons and
there is an external circuit through which the current
flows
• The thermionic emission current density is
determined by the 'work function' of the material,
which is basically the magnitude of the potential
energy barrier.
• Good emitters should have low work functions.
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• It is generally accepted that the tungsten is the
best cathode metal because of its lower value of
work function
• The metal can be heated in two different ways.
• One is direct heating and second is the indirect
heating.
• In the direct heating where the filament itself is the
cathode and the indirect heating where the cathode
is heated by a separate filament.
• Pure tungsten is used as main metal in the case of
direct heating method
• Nickel (or) Nickel alloys are used as main metal in
the case of indirect heating.
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Advantage, disadvantage and applications
Advantages

• Higher efficiency and high power density

• Compact to use

Disadvantages

• There is a possibility of vaporization of emitter

surface
• Thermal breaking is possible during operation
• The sealing is often gets failure

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Applications

• They are used in space power application for

spacecraft

•They are used to power submarines and boats.

• They used in water pump for irrigation,
• They used in power plant for industry and domestic
purpose

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 MAGNETO HYDRO DYNAMIC POWER
GENERATION (MHD )
 80 % of total electricity produced in the world is hydral, while
remaining 20% is produced from nuclear, thermal, solar,
geothermal energy and from magneto hydro dynamic (mhd)
generator.
 MHD power generation is a new system of electric power
generation which is said to be of high efficiency and low
pollution. In advanced countries MHD generators are widely
used but in developing countries like INDIA, it is still under
construction, this construction work in in progress at TRICHI in
TAMIL NADU, under the joint efforts of BARC (Bhabha atomic
research center), Associated cement corporation (ACC) and
Russian technologists.
 As its name implies, magneto hydro dynamics (MHD) is
concerned with the flow of a conducting fluid in the presence of
magnetic and electric field. The fluid may be gas at elevated
temperatures or liquid metals like sodium or potassium.


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 An MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy of a
fuel directly into electrical energy without conventional electric
generator.
 When an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in it which produces an electric current.
 This is the principle of the conventional generator where the
conductors consist of copper strips.
 In MHD generator, the solid conductors are replaced by a
gaseous conductor, an ionized gas. If such a gas is passed at a
high velocity through a powerful magnetic field, a current is
generated and can be extracted by placing electrodes in
suitable position in the stream.
 The principle can be explained as follows. An electric conductor
moving through a magnetic field experiences a retarding force
as well as an induced electric field and current

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Principle, construction and working of
Magneto hydrodynamic generator
 In this system, the hot ionized gaseous conductor (working fluid) is passed into the high
magnetic field and thereby the current is produced. By placing suitable
electrodes (Anode and cathode) inside the chamber, the output load
is taken through the external circuit.

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45
PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER GENERATION

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 The flow direction is right angles to the magnetic fields
direction. An electromotive force (or electric voltage) is induced in
the direction at right angles to both flow and field directions,

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 Construction
Thermal resistance
Water sealing
cooler Magnet

S
combustion
Working Electrode
fluid Load
Chamber
Ionized Gas V output
Inlet
N

Stream
out

Nozzle

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• MHD generator consist of a Combustion chamber and generator
chamber.
• The fluid conductor is passed into the combustion chamber
where they are ionized at very high temperature.
• There is a nozzle through which the ionized gas pass into
the generator chamber.
• The generator chamber consist of powerful magnet and a
number of oppositely located electrode pair is inserted in
the channel to conduct the electrical current generated to an
external load.
• Both combustion chamber and generator chamber are
surrounded by a heat resistance material and water cooler

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Working

• The gaseous (fluid) conductor is passed into the

combustion chamber through inlet.

• By using a fuel like oil (or) natural gas (or) coal, the fluid
conductor is heated to a plasma state and hence it is
ionized.

• The temperature in the combustion chamber is around

2000°K to 2400°K.

• The heat generated in the combustion chamber removes

the outermost electrons in the fluid conductor.

• Therefore, the gas particle acquires the charge

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• The charged gas particles with high velocity enters into the
generator chamber via nozzle.

• The positive and negative charge moves to

correspondingelectrodes (anode and Cathode) and constitute the
current.

• In generator chamber, based principles of Faraday’s law, the high

velocity ionized conducting gas particles experience the magnetic
filed at right angles to their motion of direction and hence the
potential (current) is produced.

• The direction of current (Potential) is perpendicular to both the

direction of moving gas particle and to the magnetic field.

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• The electrodes are connected to an external circuit to get a load
output.
• The current produced in the MHD generator are direct current
(DC)
• This DC current can be converted into alternative current
(AC) using an inverter attached with the external circuit.
• In MHD generator, the seeding materials such as potassium
and cesium are used to reduce the ionization temperature.
• These seeds are mixed with fuel material such as natural gas
and coal.
• The overall efficiency of MHD generators are about 50 to
60 %.
• The electrode are made generally using high temperature
ceramic materials such as carbides (SiC, ZrC, MbC),
bromides (ZrB2, TiB2, LaB2) and silicides (WS and MOSi2 ).

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• VARIOUS MHD SYSTEMS
 The MHD systems are broadly classified into two types.

 OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

 CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM

Seeded inert gas system

Liquid metal system

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OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM
 The fuel used maybe oil through an oil tank or gasified coal
through a coal gasification plant

 The fuel (coal, oil or natural gas) is burnt in the combustor or

combustion chamber.

 The hot gases from combustor is then seeded with a small

amount of ionized alkali metal (cesium or potassium) to increase
the electrical conductivity of the gas.

 The seed material, generally potassium carbonate is injected

into the combustion chamber, the potassium is then ionized by
the hot combustion gases at temperature of roughly 2300’ c to
2700’c.

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OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

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 To attain such high temperatures, the compressed air is used to
burn the coal in the combustion chamber, must be adequate to
at least 1100’c. A lower preheat temperature would be adequate
if the air is enriched in oxygen. An alternative is used to
compress oxygen alone for combustion of fuel, little or no
preheating is then required. The additional cost of oxygen might
be balanced by saving on the preheater.
 The hot pressurized working fluid living in the combustor flows
through a convergent divergent nozzle. In passing through the
nozzle, the random motion energy of the molecules in the hot
gas is largely converted into directed, mass of energy. Thus , the
gas emerges from the nozzle and enters the MHD generator unit
at a high velocity.
 The MHD generator is a divergent channel made of a heat resistant
alloy with external water cooling. The hot gas expands through the
rocket like generator surrounded by powerful magnet. During motion
of the gas the +ve and –ve ions move to the electrodes and constitute
an electric current.

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ADVANTAGES
 The conversion efficiency of a MHD system can be around
50% much higher compared to the most efficient steam
plants. Still higher efficiencies are expected in future, around
60 – 65 %, with the improvements in experience and
technology.

 Large amount of power is generated.

 It has no moving parts, so more reliable.

 The closed cycle system produces power, free of pollution.

 It has ability to reach the full power level as soon as started.

 The size if the plant is considerably smaller than

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ADVANTAGES
 Although the cost cannot be predicted very accurately, yet it has
been reported that capital costs of MHD plants will be competitive
to conventional steam plants.
 It has been estimated that the overall operational costs in a plant
would be about 20% less than conventional steam plants.
 Direct conversion of heat into electricity permits to eliminate the
turbine (compared with a gas turbine power plant) or both the boiler
and the turbine (compared with a steam power plant) elimination
reduces losses of energy.
 These systems permit better fuel utilization. The reduced fuel
consumption would offer additional economic and special benefits
and would also lead to conservation of energy resources.
 It is possible to use MHD for peak power generations and
emergency service. It has been estimated that MHD equipment for
such duties is simpler, has capability of generating in large units
and has the ability to make rapid start to full load.

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 FUTURE PROSPECTS
 It is estimated that by 2020, almost 70 % of the total electricity
generated in the world will be from MHD generators.
 Research and development is widely being done on MHD by
different countries of the world.
Nations involved:
 USA
 Former USSR
 Japan
 India
 China
 Yugoslavia
 Australia
 Italy
 Poland
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What is fuel cell?
 A Fuel cell is a electrochemical device that converts chemical
energy into electrical energy
 Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one
negative, called, respectively, the cathode and anode. The
reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes
 In all types of fuel cell, hydrogen is used as fuel and can be
obtained from any source of hydrocarbon.
 The fuel cell transform hydrogen and oxygen into electric
power, emitting water as their only waste product.
 Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries electrically
charged particles from one electrode to the other, and a
catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the electrodes .

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• Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which
carries electrically charged particles from one
electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which
speeds the reactions at the electrodes.
• A single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct
current (DC) electricity.
• A converter is used to produce AC current
• In practice, many fuel cells are usually assembled
into a stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the
same.

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 A fuel cell configuration

 A fuel cell consists of 

two electrodes namely
an anode and a cathode
and sandwiched around
an electrolyte.
 An electrolyte is a
substance, solid or
liquid, capable of
conducting oving ions
from one electrode to
other.
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 Types of fuel cells

 There are different types of fuel cells, differentiated by

the type of electrolyte separating the hydrogen from the
oxygen. The types of fuel cells are:
• Alkaline fuel cells (AFC)
• Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC)
• Molten carbonate fuel cell (MFFC)
• Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
• Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)
• Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC

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Principle, construction and
working of H2-O2 fuel cell
 In this cell Hydrogen and Oxygen are used as fuel and oxidant
respectively. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide ( 20% to 40%
concentration) which has high electrical conductivity and is less
corrosive than acids.

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Construction
It has three chambers separated by two porous
nickel electrodes, the anode and cathode. The
middle chamber between the electrodes is filled
with a strong solution of potassium hydroxide
(KOH)
Working
The gases diffuses through the electrodes,
undergoing reactions as shown below
Anode: 2H2 + 4(OH)- 4H2O + 4e-
 The liberated electrons in anode side do not migrate through
electrolyte.
 Therefore, they passes through the external circuit where work is
performed, then finally goes into the cathode.
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Cathode :
At cathode, the electrons are picked up by oxygen atoms available
there, react with water present in the electrolyte to form hydroxide
(OH)- ions, the reaction being:
O2 + 2H2O+ 4e- 4(OH)-
The electrolyte provides the (OH)- ions needed for the reaction, and
remains unchanged at the end, since these are regenerated
ie, : 2H2 + 4(OH)- 4H2O + 4e-
O2 + 2H2O+ 4e- 4(OH)-
Net Reaction : 2H2 + O2 2H2O

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Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

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The phosphoric acid fuel cell consists of two electrodes of
porous conducting material (eg. Nickel) to collect charge and
phosphoric acid as electrolyte.
At anode, hydrogen molecule is split into hydrogen ions and
electrons. The electrons flow through external circuit and
produce electric power while ions travel through electrolyte
and combine with oxygen, usually from air, at the cathode to
form water.
The electrochemical reaction is very slow, so a catalyst is
required in the electrode to accelerate the reaction. Platinum
is the best catalyst for both electrodes.

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Reactions in this fuel cell produce electricity and byproduct
heat. The reactions are given below
Anode : H2 2(H+) + 2 e-
Cathode : ½ O2 + 2H+ 2(e-) 2H2O
Overall cell reaction :
2H2 + O2 2H2O + Electrical energy

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Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)

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In PEMFC cell, electrolyte is a solid polymer membrane of an organic
material such as polystyrene sulphonic acid and this is permeable to
protons (H+) when it is saturated with water but it does not conduct
electrons.
At anode, hydrogen molecule is split into hydrogen ions and electrons.
The electrons flow through external circuit and produce electric power.
Oxygen is supplied to the cathode and combines with electrons and
hydrogen ions to produce water.
Reactions in this fuel cell produce electricity and byproduct heat. The
reactions are given below
Anode : H2 2(H+) + 2 e-
Cathode : ½ O2 + 2H+ 2(e-) 2H2O
Overall cell reaction :

2H2 + O2 2H2O + Electrical energy

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Fuel Cell: Principle of Operation
conversion device,
not energy source
Anode Cathode

e
-
H+
H2 O2
H2  2H+ + 2e- ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O

Electrolyte

Overall: H2 + ½ O2  H2O
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell(
MCFC)

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Anode:
H2 + CO3-- = H2O + CO2 + 2e-
CO + CO3-- = CO2 + 2e-
Cathode :
CO2 + ½ O2 + 2e- = CO3 - -
Overall reaction :
H2 + CO + O2 = H2O + CO2 + Electrical Energy

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Advantage, disadvantage and
applications
Advantages
 Zero Emissions: a fuel cell vehicle only emits water vapour.
Therefore, no air pollution occurs.
 High efficiency: Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly
into electricity without the combustion process. As a result, Fuel
cells can achieve high efficiencies in energy conversion.
 High power density: A high power density allows fuel cells to
be relatively compact source of electric power, beneficial in
application with space constraints.
 Quiet operation: Fuel cells can be used in residential or built-up
areas where the noise pollution can be avoided.
 No recharge: Fuel cell systems do not require recharging.

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Disadvantages

 It is difficult to manufacture and stores a high pure hydrogen

 It is very expense as compared to battery
Applications
1. Portable applications
 They used in portable appliances and power tools

 They can be used in small personal vehicles

 They are used Consumer electronics like laptops, cell phones

can be operated

 They can be used in Backup power

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2. Transportation applications
 Industrial transportation

 Public transportation

 Commercial transportation (truck, tractors)

 Marine and Military transportation

3. Power distribution application
 Fuel cells can be used for the distribution of power in
various fields such as,
 Homes and small businesses

 Commercial and industrial sites

 Remote, off-grid locations (telecom towers, weather stations)

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Photoelectric Effect

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Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric Effect
A photoelectric effect is any effect in which light energy is
converted to electricity.
The devices that make use of the photoelectric effect are
often called
 A photo electric cell
 A photo cell, or
 An electric eye

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 Photoelectric Effect
 Einstein said that light travels in tiny packets called quanta.
 The energy of each quanta is given by its frequency

frequency

E=hf
Energy
Planck’s constant
 Photoelectric Effect
 Each metal has a minimum energy needed for an electron to be
emitted.
 This is known as the work function, W.
 So, for an electron to be emitted, the energy of the photon, hf, must
be greater than the work function, W.

 The excess energy is the kinetic energy, E of the emitted electron .

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION:-
E= hf-W
KINDS OF PHOTOELECTRIC
CELLS
 Photo emissive cells
 Photoconductive cells
 Photovoltaic cells

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PHOTOEMISSIVE CELLS
PHOTOEMISSION
 Light, like all other radiation, is made up of small particles called
photons.
 The amount of energy the photons have depends on the frequency of
the light.
 The frequency of light is the number of times that a light wave vibrates in
a second.
 The higher the frequency, the more energy the photons have.
 If a photon hits an atom of a certain material, it may be absorbed by an
electron of that material.

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 However, if the photon has enough energy, the electron is ejected,
or emitted, from the atom.
 In this way, light energy changes into electrical energy.

 If wires are attached to a photoemittive material, the electrons can

flow along the wires, forming an electric current.

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
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE
Results from light hitting a semiconductor CELLS
 Semiconductors contain free, negatively charged electrons
 A free electron is an electron that has left its atom and so is not bound
to it
 When the electron leaves its atom, it creates a positive charge in the
atom
 The positive charge attracts an electron from another atom

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 This process repeats itself, creating an electric current. When light
falls on certain semiconductors, the number of electrons leaving
their atoms increases. This increases the current.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
 Is similar to photoconductivity.
 In this effect, light falls on two semiconductors, or on a metal and a
semiconductor sandwiched together.
 A boundary develops between these two substances.
 Free electrons build up along the boundary but cannot flow across
it.
 However, if the two substances are connected in a circuit, then the
electrons can flow across it.

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The voltage generated from a single photovoltaic cell is typically a
fraction of a volt. By connecting many thousands of individual cells
together, however, as in modern solar batteries, more than 1 kilowatt of
electric power can be generated.

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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
SYSTEMS

92
introduction

 Solar photovoltaic system is a power

system that directly convert the solar energy
into electricity by means of the photo voltaic
effects.
 The photo voltaic effect is defined as the
generation of an electromotive force as a
result of the absorption of ionizing radiation
from the sun.
 Solar cell is the energy conversion device
used to convert sunlight to electricity by the 93
Cont…..

 A PV system consist of:

1. Solar array or module.
2. Load.
3. Storage system.
4. Tracking system.

94
 How Photovoltaic cell works

 The Photons of sun strikes the

solar panel and are absorbed
by semiconducting material,
such as silicon.
 Electrons (negatively charged)
are knocked loose from their
atoms, allowing them to flow out of
the semiconductor material by the
electric field produced from the P-N
junction toward charge collecting
electrodes.
 These electrons flow out of
electrodes to do useful work when
connected with external loads.

95
Cont…..

96
 PhotoVoltaic cell concept
The solar cell is composed of a P-type semiconductor and N-
type semiconductor. Solar light hitting the cell produces two
types of electrons, negatively and positively charged
electrons in the semiconductors.
Negatively charged (-) electrons gather around the N-type
semiconductor while positively charged (+) electrons gather
around the P-type semiconductor. When load is connected,
such as a light bulb, electric current flows between the two
electrodes.

Electrode
Reflect-Proof Film

Electric Current
Solar Energy N-Type Semiconductor
P-Type Semiconductor
Load

Electrode

Photo Voltaic
97
cell
 Solar cell
 Solar cell is the energy conversion device
used to convert sunlight to electricity by the
use of the photovoltaic effect.
 Direct current is produced, which can be
stored in storage batteries.
 Cell consist of:
1. N-type semi conductor
2. P-type semi conductor
3. P-N junction
4. Front & back electrodes
5. Anti-reflection coating 98
Solar cell

99
 Solar module

 It is a collection of cells electrically

connected either in series or parallel &
packaged in one frame.
 Modules are sealed for protection against
corrosion, moisture, weathering etc.

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Solar array

 Solar
array is the combination of more than
one modules to increase the electric power
output.

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Hierarchy of PV
Volt Ampere Watt Size
Cell 0.5V 5-6A 2-3W about 10cm
Module 20-30V 5-6A 100-200W about 1m
Array 200-300V 50A-200A 10-50kW about
30m
Array
Module

Cell

6x9=54 100-300 10
(cells) (modules) 2
 Series & parallel connections

Series Connection
 When a number of solar cells are
connected in series, the voltage is increased
but the current remain same.

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3
Cont…..

Parallel Connection
 When a number of solar cells are
connected in parallel, the current is
increased but the voltage remain same.

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4
Maximum power point tracking
 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a
technique that grid connected inverters are
used to get the maximum possible power
from the photovoltaic array.
 The Inverter's MPPT system digitally
samples the power output of the cell and
applies the proper resistance (load) to find
• Voltage on normal operation point
the optimal maximum power point.
0.5V per cell (in case of Silicon PV)
• Current depend on
- Size of the cell
Power = Voltage x 10
5
Voltage and Current of PV cell ( I-V
Curve ) P
A Pmax = Vmax x Imax
N
(A)
Short
Circuit
High insolation
Normal operation
Current(I)

point
(Maximum Power
Low insolation point)
P
V
IxV=W N
Open Circuit
(V)
Voltage(V)
about 0.5V
10
(Silicon) 6
Maximum efficiency of the cell

Maximum efficiency of the cell = Pmax / Psun

Where,

Pmax = Maximum power of the cell

Psun = Total power density of the sunlight

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 advantages
 Very clean, sustainable, durable, low cost for
maintenance.
 Absence of moving parts.
 No pollution
 High power to weight ratio.
 Long effective life.
 Direct conversion of light to electricity.
 Ability to function unattended for long periods.
 Easy to operate.
 No consumption of fuel to operate, as the sun’s energy
is free of cost.

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disadvantages

 High cost.
 Energy storage is required because of no
insolation at night.

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applications
 Calculators
 Space crafts
 Weather monitoring satellites
 Railway signalling equipments
 Water pumping sets for micro irrigation
and drinking water
 Radio beacons for ship navigation at ports
 Radio and television sets
 Battery charging
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 World's largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants
(12 MW or larger)

Name of PV power Country DC GW· Notes

plant Peak h
Power /year
(MW)

Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park Spain 60 85 Completed September 2008

Puertollano Photovoltaic Park Spain 50 2008

Moura photovoltaic power Portugal 46 93 Completed December 2008

station

Waldpolenz Solar Park Germany 40 40 550,000 First Solar thin-film

CdTe modules. Completed Dec
2008

Arnedo Solar Plant Spain 34 Completed October 2008

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Merida/Don Alvaro Solar Park Spain 30 Completed September 2008
THANK YOU

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