• METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

• While deciding about the method of data collection to be

used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two
types of data viz., primary and secondary.
• The primary data are those which are collected afresh and
for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
• The secondary data are that which have already been
collected by someone else and which already has been
passed through statistical processes.
• The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he
would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly
he will have to select one or the other method of data
collection.
 Comparison between primary data and secondary data
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
1. These are first-hand original These are second-hand ready-made
data collected by research data collected by some other agency
through various methods. but not by the researcher.
2. Collection is time and cost Easy and quick collection at less
consuming. It is complicated cost.
too.
3. Sources of primary data are the Sources could be internal or
sampling units chosen. external records.
4. Primary data are reliable and Supplementary to primary data.
accurate when properly
collected.
5. Primary data affect the research They provide secondary
directly. information.
6. Primary data are latest useful Secondary data are historical.
for current problems.
• COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

• Secondary data is data that has been collected

by others for another purpose. It is important
to us because it can save considerable time
and effort in solving the research problem at
hand. Researchers should always conduct a
thorough data search in the development and
execution of any research programme.
• USES OF SECONDARY DATA

• The uses of secondary data can be conveniently arranged

into the following four categories:

• Problem recognition: A constant monitoring of secondary

data can provide the impetus for problem recognition.
Moreover, exploratory studies maybe initiated to identify
future opportunities or weaknesses in the firm's current
operations.

• Problem clarification: Secondary data can also fruitfully be

used to help clarify the specific problem that we may be
facing. Here, clarification usually means making the decision
problem more reachable by delineating the components of
the situation. Another related use of secondary data is that
they can help plan the study design and provide information
to write the research proposal.
•
• Formulation of feasible alternatives: Alternatives
must exist before decision-making can take place.
Secondary data are very useful in generating viable
alternatives to solve problems. The multiplicity of
data sources, research approaches and managerial
styles usually lead to a number of possibilities
which should be examined by the researcher.

• Problem solution: Not only are secondary data

helpful in the definition and development of a
problem, they are often sufficient in and of
themselves, to generate a problem's solution.
 ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA
• The major advantage of secondary data is economy. As the
data are already available, they can be obtained at a
relatively low cost.
• The secondary data can be obtained quickly.
• The secondary data enable the researchers to identify the
deficiencies in the data and make primary data collection
specific.
• They are useful in the case of exploratory researches as they
provide increased understanding of the problem.
• They act as a basis for comparison after primary data are
collected.
• They provide for data which cannot obtained by the typical
organization like census reports.
LIMITATIONS OF SECONDARY DATA

• The available data may not suit the current purpose of

research, due to incompleteness, generalities and so on.
• Information may be outdated or obsolete.
• The methodology used in collecting the data such as the
sample size, date of the research, etc., may be
unknown.
• All the findings of a research study may not be made
public.
• Conflicting data may exist.
• It may be difficult to determine the accuracy of the
secondary data.
• EVALUATING SECONDARY DATA
The researcher before using any secondary data has to
satisfy himself as to their accuracy and reliability. He has to
evaluate secondary data on the following considerations:

• Availability: At times, one may find that secondary data are

just not available on the problem at hand. The secondary
data must be available for use.

• Relevance: Relevance means that the data available must fit

the requirements of that problem. This would cover several
aspects. First, the unit of measurement should be the same
as that in the marketing problem. Second, the concepts
should be the same as are envisaged in the problem. Also,
the data should not be obsolete.
• Accuracy: In this regard, one should consult
the original source. This would not only give
comprehensive information but would also
indicate the context in which data have been
collected, the procedure followed and the
extent of care exercised in their collection.
• Sufficiency: Finally, the data should be
sufficient. If the data are inadequate, then
compliance with the preceding requirements
will be in vain.
• Sources of Secondary Data
• Internal
Internal sources can be classified under four
broad categories-
accounting records,
sales force reports,
miscellaneous reports and
internal experts.
Accounting records:
• These generate a good deal of data. As profits are
based on sales, sales invoice is a good source.
• Such information can be extremely useful in
undertaking a detailed analysis of sales by product,
customer, industry, geographic area, sales territory
and sales representative.
• Compared with corresponding data on costs, it can
indicate the level of profits (or loss) for each
product.
Sales force reports:
• This source can provide very useful marketing
information but somehow it has remained largely
untapped.
• This is because sales persons may not be giving detailed
reports. In order to ensure that this source is more
useful, it is necessary to organize the system properly.
• It should be a simple process of reporting the
information.
• Sales persons may be encouraged to provide accurate
and comprehensive information. Some incentive may
be given to those who report accurately and
adequately.
 Miscellaneous reports:
• Any studies done earlier on marketing problems of the
company, special audit, etc. come in this category.
• Such reports on varying subjects should be properly
maintained and easily accessible when required.

Experts:
• Experts working in the company can also be a good
source of internal data.
• However, this source is least tapped. A limitation of this
source is that information is in the expert’s mind and
not on paper.
• The experts can provide useful information or ideas on
a given marketing problem whenever a serious
discussion is held in a meeting.
• External Sources
• The external secondary data do not originate in the
firm and are obtained from outside sources.
• It may be noted that secondary data can be
collected from the originating sources or from,
secondary sources.
• For example, the Office of the Economic Adviser,
Government of India, is the originating source for
the data on wholesale prices.
• In contrast, a publication such as the Reserve Bank
of India Bulletin containing some parts of the series
of wholesale prices is a secondary source.
• Government Publications: A large bulk of secondary
data useful to a marketing researcher is found in
various government publications. The data relate to
various characteristic such as the break-up of
population by sex, rural urban residence, age,
education and occupation. While it is true that these
statistics are available only decennially, they are the
most authentic and are often used as the basis for
projection for future years.

• The Central Statistical Organization (CSO)

• The Director General of Commercial Intelligence,
• The Wholesale Price Index numbers
• All-India Consumer Price Index numbers
• Some other official publications include the:

• Basic Statistics relating to the Indian Economy,

• Reserve Bank of India Bulletin,
• Currency Finance Report,
• The Economic Survey,
• Agricultural Situation in India,
• The Indian Labour Journal,
• The Indian Labour Year Book,
• State Statistical Abstracts and District Statistical
Handbooks,
• National Sample Survey (NSS),
• Non-government Publications:

• National Council of Applied Economic

Research (NCAER),
• The Marketing Whitebook published by
Business World.
• The R.K Swamy BBDO Guide to Urban Markets
• Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce
and Industry (FICCI)
• Collection of Primary Data
• Observation
• Observation is one of the methods of collecting
data. It is used to get both past and current
information. For example, instead of asking
respondents about their current behaviour, we may
observe it and record our observations. Although it
is not possible to observe past behaviour, we may
observe the results of such behaviour. In a way,
secondary data reflect the results of the past
behaviour of people as also of past occurrences.
• In marketing research, the observational method is
not used frequently.
• Advantages of observation
• Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately.
• It enables a researcher to record behaviour as it occurs.
The information obtained is not complicated by either
the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
• It can be used regardless of whether the respondent is
willing to report or not. In a field survey, if an
enumerator comes across an unwilling and hostile
respondent, he cannot collect the desired information.
But, this problem does not arise at all in the case of
direct observation.
• It can be used even when it pertains to those who are
unable to respond such as infants and animals.
• Limitations of observation
• The information provided by this method is very
limited.
• The current behaviour of a person or a group of
persons can only be observed. One is not able to
observe the past behaviour nor can one observe
a person’s future behaviour because the act of
observation takes place in the present.
• Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with
the observational task. For example,
inaccessibility of people to be observed.
• The method is very slow and expensive. As such,
when a large number of persons are to be
contacted, it becomes unsuitable.
• Methods of Observation

• Structured-unstructured Observation
• Structured observation is used when the research problem
has been formulated precisely and the observers have been
told specifically what is to be observed. They may be given
a simple form to record their observations. They are
considered appropriate in descriptive studies.

• Unstructured observation implies that observers are free to

observe whatever they think is relevant and important.
While structured observations are free from subjective
bias, unstructured observations are subject to this
limitation. The extent of the bias may vary to the extent an
observation is unstructured.
• Participant-non participant observation
• When the observer observes the group by
becoming a part of the group so that he can
experience what the members of the group
experience, the observation is called
participant observation.

• In non-participant observation, the observer

observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through
participation what others feel.
• Controlled-uncontrolled Observation
• Observations in field studies are in their natural
setting and are, therefore, called controlled
observation. The major aim of this type of
observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and
persons.

• Uncontrolled observations are observations in a

laboratory setting, on the other hand, enables the
observer to control extraneous variables which
influence the behaviour of people. Observational
studies in laboratory settings enable the collection of
data promptly and economically and in addition,
permit the use of more objective measurements.
• Direct-Indirect Observation
• In the case of direct observation, the event or the
behaviour of a person is observed as it occurs.
• In contrast, indirect observation implies that some
record of past behaviour is observed.
• In other words, the behaviour itself is not observed,
rather its effects are observed. An observer engaged
in indirect observation generally looks for physical
traces of behaviour or occurrence of an event.
• It may be noted that the success of an indirect
observation largely depends on how best the
observer is able to identify physical traces of the
problem under study.
• INTERVIEW METHOD

• The interview method of collecting data

involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
• This method can be used through personal
interviews (like depth interviews),
• focus group interviews and,
• if possible, through telephone interviews.
• Personal interviews
• Personal interview method requires a person
known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other
person or persons.

• The method of collecting information through

personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way.
• Structured interviews.
• Such interviews involve the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly
standardized techniques of recording.
• Thus, the interviewer in a structured
interview follows a rigid procedure laid
down, asking questions in a form and order
prescribed.
 Unstructured Interviews
• characterized by a flexibility of approach to
questioning.
• Unstructured interviews do not follow a system
of pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques of recording information.
• In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is
allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of
need, supplementary questions or at times he
may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires.
• He may even change the sequence of questions.
• Depth interviews
• When a researcher is interested in in-depth investigation of
perceptions, attitudes or motivations of the respondents, an
unstructured interview called Depth Interview is conducted. On
account of their flexibility, such interviews help a researcher in
asking probing questions to secure as much information as
possible. A procedure similar to that used by a psychiatrist is
followed. The researcher asks such questions as are appropriate
without any formal questionnaire with him.
For example:
• What make of Electric Scooter did you buy?
• Did you compare different scooters before buying a Lohia?
• What has been your experience with it?
• Is it easy to maintain?
• Is it reliable on busy roads?
• Are you satisfied with its performance?
• Thus, the researcher will continue asking questions till he is
satisfied.
• Focus-Group interviews
• In this method, the interviewer collects a
small number (say about 8 people) of
representative consumers for discussion on a
particular subject. A group smaller than this
proves to be insufficient for a focus group. A
group, say 10-12 people, is regarded as too
large as the people have to wait for long for
their turn to come.
 Major advantages of personal interviews are as follows:
• More information and that too in greater depth can be
obtained.
• Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance,
if any, of the respondents.
• There is greater flexibility under this method as the
opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
especially in case of unstructured interviews.
• Observation method can as well be applied to recording
verbal answers to various questions.
• Personal information can as well be obtained easily under
this method.
• Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises
no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response
generally remains very low.
• The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will
answer the questions.
• The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and
thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions than
would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
• The language of the interview can be adapted to the
ability or educational level of the person interviewed and
as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be
avoided.
• The interviewer can collect supplementary information
about the respondent’s personal characteristics and
environment which is often of great value in interpreting
results.
Weaknesses of personal interview method are as
follows:
• It is a very expensive method, especially when
large and widely spread geographical sample is
taken.
• There remains the possibility of the bias of
interviewer as well as that of the respondent;
there also remains the headache of supervision
and control of interviewers.
• Certain types of respondents such as important
officials or executives or people in high income
groups may not be easily approachable under
this method and to that extent the data may
prove inadequate.
• This method is relatively more-time-consuming,
especially when the sample is large.
• The presence of the interviewer on the spot may
over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to
the extent that he may give imaginary information
just to make the interview interesting.
• Under the interview method the organization
required for selecting, training and supervising the
field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
• Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with
respondents that would facilitate free and frank
responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.
 For successful implementation of a personal interview:
• the interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and
briefed. They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, and
impartial and must possess the technical competence and
necessary practical experience.

• occasional field checks should be made to ensure that

interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from
instructions given to them for performing their job
efficiently.

• some provision should also be made in advance so that

appropriate action may be taken if some of the selected
respondents refuse to cooperate or are not available
when an interviewer calls upon them.
• effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere
of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel
at ease while talking to and discussing with the
interviewer.
• the interviewer must ask questions properly and
intelligently and must record the responses accurately
and completely. At the same time, the interviewer
• must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by
the respondent and must clear any doubt that the
latter has. The interviewers approach must be
friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased.
• the interviewer must keep the direction of interview
in his own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation
and must make all possible effort to keep the
respondent on the track.
• Telephone interviews
• This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents
on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays
important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.
• The chief merits of such a system are:
• It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
• It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
• It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per
response is relatively low.
• Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
• There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method;
the non-response is generally very low.
• Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
• At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be
contacted for one reason or the other.
• No field staff is required.
• Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
• Demerits of telephonic interviews are as follows:
• Little time is given to respondents for considered
answers; interview period is not likely to exceed
five minutes in most cases.
• Surveys are restricted to respondents who have
telephone facilities.
• Extensive geographical coverage may get
restricted by cost considerations.
• It is not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
• Questions have to be short and to the point;
probes are difficult to handle.
• SCHEDULES

• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of

data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the
fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are
being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for
the purpose. These enumerators along with schedules go to
respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the
order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space
meant for the same in the proforma.

• Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and

also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the implications of a particular question or the
definition or concept of difficult terms. The enumerators should be
trained to perform their job well. Enumerators should be intelligent
and must possess the capacity of cross examination in order to find
out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, and
hardworking and should have patience and perseverance.
 Comparison between questionnaires and schedules
QUESTIONNAIRES SCHEDULES
1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail They are generally filled out by the research worker or the
to the informants. enumerator.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively To collect data through schedules is relatively more
cheap and economical. expensive since considerable amount of money has to be
spent in appointing enumerators and in imparting training
to them.
3. Non-response is usually high in case of Non-response is generally very low in case of schedules
questionnaire as many people do not respond and because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get
many return the questionnaire without answering answers to all questions.
all questions.
4. Bias due to non-response often remains Danger of interviewer bias and cheating is always there.
indeterminate.
5. Identity of respondent is unknown. Identity of respondent is known.
6. Its likely to be very slow since many respondents Information is collected well in time as they are filled in by
do not return enumerators.
the questionnaire in time despite several
reminders.
7. Personal contact with respondents is generally not Direct personal contact is established with respondents.
possible.
8. Can be used only when respondents are literate Information can be gathered even when the respondents
and cooperative. happen to be illiterate.
9. Wider and more representative distribution of Difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider
sample is possible. area.
10. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong Information collected is generally complete and accurate as
information is relatively more. enumerators
can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in
correctly understanding the questions.
11. The success of questionnaire method lies more on The success of schedules depends upon the honesty and
the quality of the questionnaire itself. competence of enumerators.
12. Observation is not possible in this case. Along with schedules, observation method can also be
used.