Other Wireless Networks

• WiMAX
• Cellular Telephony
• Satellite networks
 WiMAX
• First, people want to have access to the Internet from home or office
(fixed) where the wired access to the Internet is either not available or is
expensive.
• Second, people need to access the Internet when they are using their
cellular phones (mobiles).

Services
1. Fixed
2. Mobile
 Fixed WiMAX
• A base station can use different types of antenna (omnidirectional, sector,
or panel) to optimize the performance.
• WiMAX uses a beamsteering adaptive antenna system (AAS).
• While transmitting, it can focus its energy in the direction of the
subscriber; while receiving, it can focus in the direction of the subscriber
station to receive maximum energy sent by the subscriber.
 Mobile WiMAX
• It is the same as fixed service except the subscribers are mobile stations
that move from one place to another.
• The same issues involved in the cellular telephone system, such as
roaming, are present here.
 IEEE Project 802.16
• WiMAX is the result of the IEEE 802.16 project, which was an effort to
standardize the proprietary broadband wireless system in 2002.
• The standard is sometimes referred to as wireless local loop
Service Specific Convergence Sublayer
• This is actually the DLC sublayer revised for broadband wireless
communication.
• It has been devised for a connection-oriented service in which each
connection may benefit from a specific quality of service (QoS).
MAC Sublayer
• The MAC sublayer defines the access method and the format of the frame.
• It is a sublayer designed for connection-oriented service.
• The packets are routed from the base station to the subscriber station
using a connection identifier which is the same during the duration of the
communication.

Access Method
• WiMAX uses the reservation (scheduling) access method.
• The base station needs to make a slot reservation before sending a slotsize
of data to a subscriber station; each subscriber station needs to make a
reservation before sending a slot-size of data to the base station
 Frame Format
Two types of frames:
1. Generic: Used to send and receive payload
2. Control: Used only during the connection establishment.
The first bit in a frame is the frame identifier. If it is 0, the frame is a generic frame; if it
is 1, it is a control frame.
EC: The encryption control field uses one bit to define whether the frame should be
encrypted for security purpose. If the bit is 0, it means no encryption; if it is 1, it means
the frame needs to be encrypted at the security sublayer.
Type: The type field uses six bits to define the type of the frame.
CI: The checksum ID field uses one bit to define whether the frame checksum field
should be present or not. If the payload is multimedia, forward error correction
EK: The encryption key field uses two bits to define one of the four keys for encryption.
Length: The length field uses eleven bits to define the total length of the frame.
Bytes Needed: The bytes needed field uses sixteen bits to define the number of bytes
needed for allocated slots in the physical layer.
Connection ID: The connection ID field uses sixteen bits to define the connection
identifier for the current connection.
Header CRC: Both types of frames need to have an 8-bit header CRC field. The header
CRC is used to check whether the header itself is corrupted. It uses the polynomial (x8 +
x2 + x + 1) as the divisor.
Payload: This variable-length field defines the payload, the data that is encapsulated in
the frame from the service specific convergence sublayer. The field is not needed in the
control frame.
CRC: The last field, if present, is used for error detection over the whole frame.
Addressing
• Each subscriber and base station typically has a 48-bit MAC address
because each station is a node in the global Internet.
• The reason is that the combination of source and destination addresses
are mapped to a connection identifier during the connection-establishing
phase.
Security Sublayer
• The last sublayer in the data-link layer provides security for
communication using WiMAX.
• The nature of broadband wireless communication requires security to
provide encryption for the information exchanged between a subscriber
station and the base station.
Transmission Convergence Sublayer
• The transmission convergence sublayer uses TDD (time-division duplex), a
variation of time-division multiplexing designed for duplex (bidirectional)
communication.
 Cellular Telephony
• Provide communications between two moving units, called
mobile stations (MSs) or between one mobile unit and one
stationary unit, often called a land unit.
• Each cellular service area is divided into small regions called
cells.
• Each cell contains an antenna and is controlled by a solar- or
Ac powered network station, called the base station (BS).
• Each base station, in turn, is controlled by a switching office,
called a mobile switching center (MSC).
• The MSC coordinates communication between all the base
stations and the telephone central office(connecting calls,
recording call information, and billing).
• Cell size is not fixed and can be increased(low density) or
decreased(high density) depending on the population of the
area.
• The typical radius of a cell is 1 to 12 mi.
 Operation
Frequency-Reuse Principle
• In general, neighboring cells cannot use the same set of frequencies for
communication because doing so may create interference.
• A frequency reuse pattern is a configuration of N cells, N being the reuse factor, in
which each cell uses a unique set of frequencies.
• The cells with the same number in a pattern can use the same set of frequencies -
reusing cells.
• In a pattern with reuse factor 4, only one cell separates the cells using the same
set of frequencies. In a pattern with reuse factor 7, two cells separate the reusing
cells.
Transmitting
• To place a call from a mobile station, the caller enters a code of 7 or 10
digits (a phone number) and presses the send button.
• The mobile station then scans the band, seeking a setup channel with a
strong signal, and sends the data (phone number) to the closest base
station using that channel.
• The base station relays the data to the MSC.
• The MSC sends the data on to the telephone central office.
• If the called party is available, a connection is made and the result is
relayed back to the MSC.
• At this point, the MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call, and a
connection is established.
• The mobile station automatically adjusts its tuning to the new channel,
and communication can begin.
Receiving
• When a mobile phone is called, the telephone central office sends the
number to the MSC.
• The MSC searches for the location of the mobile station by sending query
signals to each cell in a process called paging.
• Once the mobile station is found, the MSC transmits a ringing signal and,
when the mobile station answers, assigns a voice channel to the call,
allowing voice communication to begin.

Handoff
• During a conversation, the mobile station moves from one cell to another.
• The signal becomes weak, the MSC seeks a new cell that can better
accommodate the communication.
1. Hard Handoff: When the MS moves from one cell to another,
communication must first be broken with the previous base station
before communication can be established with the new one.
2. Soft Handoff: In this case, a mobile station can communicate with two
base stations at the same time.

Roaming
• A service provider usually has limited coverage.
• Neighboring service providers can provide extended coverage through a
roaming contract.
 First Generation (1G)
• The first generation was designed for voice communication using analog
signals.
AMPS
• Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is one of the leading analog
cellular systems in North America.
• It uses FDMA.
Bands
• AMPS operates in the ISM 800-MHz band. The system uses two separate
analog channels, one for forward (base station to mobile station - 869 and
894 MHz) communication and one for reverse (mobile station to base
station - 824 and 849 MHz) communication.
• Each band is divided into 832 channels.
• Two providers can share an area, which means 416 channels in each cell
for each provider.
• Out of these 416, 21 channels are used for control, which leaves 395
channels.
• AMPS has a frequency reuse factor of 7; this means only one-seventh of
these 395 traffic channels are actually available in a cell.
Transmission
• AMPS uses FM and FSK for modulation.
• Voice channels are modulated using FM, and control channels use FSK to
create 30-kHz analog signals.
• AMPS uses FDMA to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-kHz channels.
 Second Generation (2G)
• The second generation was mainly designed for digitized voice, higher-
quality (less noise-prone) mobile voice communications.

Three major systems evolved in the second generation:

1. D-AMPS
2. GSM
3. IS-95

D-AMPS
• The product of the evolution of the analog AMPS into a digital system is
digital AMPS (D-AMPS).
Band
• D-AMPS uses the same bands and channels as AMPS.
Transmission
• Each voice channel is digitized using a very complex PCM and compression
technique.
• A voice channel is digitized to 7.95 kbps.
• Three 7.95-kbps digital voice channels are combined using TDMA.
• The result is 48.6 kbps of digital data; much of this is overhead.
• The system sends 25 frames per second, with 1944 bits per frame.
• Each frame lasts 40 ms (1/25) and is divided into six slots shared by three
digital channels.
• Each slot holds 324 bits. However, only 159 bits come from the digitized
voice; 64 bits are for control and 101 bits are for error correction.
• The resulting 48.6 kbps of digital data modulates a carrier using QPSK; the
result is a 30-kHz analog signal.
• Finally, the 30-kHz analog signals share a 25-MHz band (FDMA).
• D-AMPS has a frequency reuse factor of 7.
GSM
• The Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a European
standard that was developed to provide a common second-generation
technology for all Europe.
Bands
• GSM uses two bands for duplex communication. Each band is 25 MHz in
width, shifted toward 900 MHz.
• Each band is divided into 124 channels of 200 kHz separated by guard
bands.
Transmission
• Each voice channel is digitized and compressed to a 13-kbps digital signal.
• Each slot carries 156.25 bits.
• Eight slots share a frame (TDMA)
• 26 frames also share a multiframe (TDMA).
• Each 270.8-kbps digital channel modulates a carrier using GMSK (a form of
FSK); the result is a 200-kHz analog signal.
• 124 analog channels of 200 kHz are combined using FDMA. The result is a
25-MHz band.
Reuse Factor
• Because of the complex error correction mechanism, GSM allows a reuse
factor as low as 3.
IS-95
• One of the dominant second-generation standards in North America is
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95).
• It is based on CDMA and DSSS.
Bands and Channels
• IS-95 uses two bands for duplex communication.
• The bands can be the traditional ISM 800-MHz band or the ISM 1900-MHz
band.
• Each band is divided into 20 channels of 1.228 MHz separated by guard
bands.
• Each service provider is allotted 10 channels.
Synchronization
• All base channels need to be synchronized to use CDMA.
• To provide synchronization, bases use the services of GPS (Global
Positioning System).
Forward Transmission
• IS-95 has two different transmission techniques: one for use in the
forward (base to mobile) direction and another for use in the reverse
(mobile to base) direction.
• In the forward direction, communications between the base and all
mobiles are synchronized; the base sends synchronized data to all mobiles.

• After adding error-correcting and repeating bits and interleaving, the

result is a signal of 19.2 ksps (kilo signals per second).
• This output is now scrambled using a 19.2-ksps signal.
• The scrambling signal is produced from a long code generator that uses
the electronic serial number (ESN) of the mobile station and generates
242 pseudorandom chips, each chip having 42 bits.
Soft Handoff
• Every base station continuously broadcasts signals using its pilot channel.
 Third Generation (3G)
The blueprint defines some criteria for third-generation
technology as outlined below:
a. Voice quality comparable to that of the existing public
telephone network.
b. Data rate of 144 kbps for access in a moving vehicle (car), 384
kbps for access as the user walks (pedestrians), and 2 Mbps for
the stationary user (office or home).
c. Support for packet-switched and circuit-switched data
services.
d. A band of 2 GHz.
e. Bandwidths of 2 MHz.
f. Interface to the Internet.
IMT-DS
• This approach uses a version of CDMA called wideband CDMA or W-CDMA. W-CDMA
uses a 5-MHz bandwidth.
IMT-MC
• This approach was developed in North America and is known as CDMA 2000.
• It is anevolution of CDMA technology used in IS-95 channels.
• It combines the new wideband (15-MHz) spread spectrum with the narrowband (1.25-
MHz) CDMA of IS-95.
IMT-TC
• This standard uses a combination of W-CDMA and TDMA.
• The standard tries to reach the IMT-2000 goals by adding TDMA multiplexing to W-
CDMA.
IMT-SC
• This standard uses only TDMA.
IMT-FT
• This standard uses a combination of FDMA and TDMA.
 Fourth Generation (4G)
Some of the objectives defined by the 4G working group are as
follows:
a. A spectrally efficient system.
b. High network capacity.
c. Data rate of 100 Mbit/s for access in a moving car and 1 Gbit/s for
stationary users.
d. Data rate of at least 100 Mbit/s between any two points in the
world.
e. Smooth handoff across heterogeneous networks.
f. Seamless connectivity and global roaming across multiple networks.
g. High quality of service for next generation multimedia support h.
Interoperability with existing wireless standards.
i. All IP, packet-switched, networks.
• The fourth generation is only packet-based (unlike 3G) and supports
IPv6.
Access Scheme
• To increase efficiency, capacity, and scalability, new access techniques are
being considered for 4G.
• Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA)
• Interleaved FDMA (IFDMA)
• Multicarrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA)
Modulation
• More efficient quadrature amplitude modulation (64-QAM) is being
proposed for use with the Long Term Evolution (LTE).
Radio System
• The fourth generation uses a Software Defined Radio (SDR) system. Unlike
a common radio, which uses hardware, the components of an SDR are
pieces of software and thus flexible.
Antenna
• The multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and multiuser MIMO (MU-
MIMO) antenna system, a branch of intelligent antenna, is proposed for
4G.
 SATELLITE NETWORKS
• A satellite network is a combination of nodes, some of which
are satellites, that provides communication from one point on
the Earth to another.
• A node in the network can be a satellite, an Earth station, or
an end-user terminal or telephone.
• Satellites can provide transmission capability to and from any
location on Earth, no matter how remote.
• This advantage makes high-quality communication available
to undeveloped parts of the world without requiring a huge
investment in ground-based infrastructure.
 Operation
Orbits
• An artificial satellite needs to have an orbit, the path in which it travels
around the Earth.
• The orbit can be equatorial, inclined, or polar.
• The period of a satellite, the time required for a satellite to make a
complete trip around the Earth, is determined by Kepler’s law.
• Here C is a constant approximately equal to 1/100. The period is in
seconds and the distance in kilometers.

According to Kepler’s law, what is the period of a satellite that is located at an

orbit approximately 35,786 km above the Earth?

• This means that a satellite located at 35,786 km has a period of 24 h,

which is the same as the rotation period of the Earth. A satellite like this is
said to be stationary to the Earth. The orbit, as we will see, is called a
geostationary orbit.
Footprint
• Satellites process microwaves with bidirectional antennas (line-of-sight).
Therefore, the signal from a satellite is normally aimed at a specific area
called the footprint.
Frequency Bands for Satellite Communication
• Transmission from the Earth to the satellite is called the uplink.
• Transmission from the satellite to the Earth is called the downlink.
• Three categories of satellites based on the location of the orbit, satellites
can be divided into three categories:
1. Geostationary Earth orbit (GEO)
2. Low-Earth-orbit (LEO)
3. Medium-Earth-orbit (MEO)
 GEO Satellites
• Line-of-sight propagation requires that the sending and receiving antennas
be locked onto each other’s location at all times.
• To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at the same
speed as the Earth (geostationary)
• Orbital speed is based on the distance from the planet, only one orbit can
be geostationary( 22,000mi from surface of the earth at equator).
• But one geostationary satellite cannot cover the whole Earth (use 3 with
120 degree angle another in geosynchronous orbit around the equator.
 MEO Satellites
• Medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites are positioned between the two Van
Allen belts.
Global Positioning System(GPS)
• GPS uses 24 satellites in six orbits.
• The orbits and the locations of the satellites in each orbit are designed in
such a way that, at any time, four satellites are visible from any point on
Earth
Trilateration
• GPS is based on a principle called trilateration.
• Trilateration which means using three distances, instead of triangulation,
which may mean using three angles.

• These three circles meet at one single point, this is our position.
• In three-dimensional space, the situation is different.
• Three spheres meet in two points.
• With additional info one of the two points, where the spheres meet, is so
improbable that the other can be selected without a doubt.
Measuring the distance
• Measuring the distance is done using a principle called one-way ranging.
• Let us assume that all GPS satellites and the receiver on the Earth are
synchronized.
• Each of 24 satellites synchronously transmits a complex signal, each
satellite’s signal having a unique pattern.
• The computer on the receiver measures the delay between the signals
from the satellites and its copy of the signals to determine the distances to
the satellites.
Synchronization
• Satellites use atomic clocks, which are precise
• The receiver’s clock, however, is a normal quartz clock (no way of
synchronizing it).
• There is an unknown offset between the satellite clocks and the receiver
clock, the measured distance is called a pseudorange.
• The calculation of position becomes finding four unknowns: the xr, yr, zr
coordinates of the receiver, and common clock offset dt.
• For finding these four unknown values, we need at least four equations.

• The coordinates used in the above formulas are in an Earth-Centered

Earth-Fixed (ECEF) reference frame, which means that the origin of the
coordinate space is at the center of the Earth and the coordinate space
rotates with the Earth.
 LEO Satellites
• Low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites have polar orbits.
• The altitude is between 500 and 2000 km, with a rotation period of 90 to 120 min.
• The satellite has a speed of 20,000 to 25,000 km/h.
• Satellites that are close to each other are connected through intersatellite links
(ISLs).
• A mobile system communicates with the satellite through a user mobile link (UML)
• satellite can also communicate with an Earth station (gateway) through a gateway
link (GWL).
• LEO satellites can be divided into three categories:
• Little LEOs: under 1 GHz
• Big LEOs: and 3 GHz eg: Globalstar, Iridium
• Broadband LEOs: Similar to Fibre-Optic eg: Teledesic