BIOPSYCHOLOGY 8e
John P.J. Pinel
Copyright © Pearson Education 2011
Topics
2.1 Thinking about the Biology of
Behavior: From Dichotomies to
Interactions
2.2 Human Evolution
2.3 Fundamental Genetics
2.4 Behavioral Development: Interaction
of Genetic Factors and Experience
2.5 Genetics of Human Psychological
Differences
Thinking about the Biology of Behavior:
From Dichotomies to Relations and Interactions
There is a tendency to think
in simple dichotomies
when explaining behavior:
• Is it physiological or
psychological?
• Is it inherited or is it
learned?
Both questions are
common, yet misguided
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Cartesian Dualism
Universe Human Mind
Cartesian Dualism: Cartesian Dualism: Mind and
universe consists of two brain viewed as separate
elements: physical matter entities
and human mind (soul, self,
or spirit)
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Is It Inherited or Is It Learned?
Watson, a behaviorist,
believed that all behavior
was the product of learning
(nurture) Nature Versus
Nurture
Ethology, the study of
animal behavior in the wild,
focuses on instinctive
(nature) behaviors
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Problems of Traditional Dichotomies: Mind-Brain
Dualism
Problem Number 1 Problem Number 2
Brain damage has an impact Chimps show psychological
on psychological (i.e., “human”) abilities.
functioning
Example: Oliver Sacks’s case Example: Gallup’s research on
study of a man with chimp self-awareness
asomatognosia
Chimps spontaneously groom
Asomatognosia typically themselves and touch red
involves damage to the mark on their own faces seen
right parietal lobe. in mirror.
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Problems of Traditional Dichotomies: Nature-or-Nurture
Many factors have an impact on
behavior other than genetics
(nature) or learning (nurture)
“Nurture” now encompasses
learning and environment
A schematic illustration
of the way in which many
biopsychologists think
about the biology of
behavior.
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Human Evolution: Evidence for Evolution
1 Fossil evidence of evolution
Structural similarities among living
2 species suggesting common ancestors
3 Impact of selective breeding
Direct observation of evolution
4 in progress: Grant (1991)
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Human Evolution: Evidence for Evolution
Four kinds of
evidence
supporting the
theory that species
evolve.
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Evolution and Behavior
Just as physical features can
contribute to “fitness,” so do
behaviors
Some are obvious—the ability to
find food, avoid predation, etc.
Some are less obvious—
social dominance and
courtship displays
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Course of Human Evolution
• Evolution of vertebrates
• Chordates have dorsal nerve cords
• Vertebrates are chordates with spinal bones
• Evolution of amphibians
• Bony fishes leave the water briefly
• Advantages include fresh water and new food
sources
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Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of reptiles
• Lay shell-covered eggs;
covered by dry scales
• Can live far from water
Evolution of mammals KINGDOM Animal
• Develop mammary glands to PHYLUM Chordate
nurture young
• Eventually no longer lay eggs: CLASS Mammal
raise young in mother’s body
• Humans emerge from the order ORDER Primate
primates
FAMILY Hominid
Emergence of humankind
GENUS Homo
• Humans belong to family
hominids, genus Homo SPECIES Sapiens
• First homo species emerged from
Australopethicus 2 million years
ago
• Homo sapiens emerged 200,000
years ago
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Thinking About Human Evolution
Similarities
among
species do not
necessarily mean that
the species have
Not all existing common origins Evolution
adaptive does not
characteristics evolved proceed in a
to perform their single line
current function
Thinking About
Not all existing Human Evolution Humans have
behaviors or only been around
structures for a brief period
are adaptive of time
Evolution does
not necessarily Fewer than 1%
result in perfect of all known
design species are still
in existence
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Thinking about Human Evolution
Homologous structures – similar
structures due to a common
evolutionary origin
Analogous structures – similar
structures without a common origin
Convergent evolution – the
evolution of similar solutions to the
same environmental demands by
unrelated species
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Evolution of the Human Brain
• There is no relationship
between brain size and
intelligence
• Brain size is generally
correlated with body size
• More informative to look
at relative size of
different brain regions
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Human Evolution: Evidence for Evolution
The brains of
animals of
different
evolutionary
ages. Cerebrums
are shown in
yellow;
brainstems are
shown in purple.
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Evolution of the Human Brain
• The human brain has
increased in size during
evolution
• Most of the increase in size
has occurred in the cerebrum
• Increased convolutions in the
cerebrum serve to increase
the volume of the cerebral
cortex
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Evolutionary Psychology: Mate Bonding
Most species
mate
promiscuously Humans
generally May be adaptive in
form allowing more
monogamous attention to
bonds survival
Most mammals of children
form
polygynous
mating bonds
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Thinking about Evolutionary Psychology
Current aspects of mate
bonding in humans
appear to be predicted by
evolutionary theory
Examples:
• Men tend to value indications of
fertility
• Women tend to value power and
earning capacity
• Physical attractiveness predicts
which women bond with men of high
status
• Mate attraction strategies: for
women, physical attraction; for men,
displaying power and resources
• Men are more likely than women to
commit adultery
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Fundamental Genetics Slender
thread inside a
chromosome
cell’s nucleus that
carries genes
Our
genotype
genetic
makeup
Genetic
material,
gene
composed
of DNA
Our
phenotype
observable
traits
Gene that is
expressed
recessive only
in the absence
of agene
dominant
gene
Gene that
dominant
masks other
gene
genes’ effects Copyright ©
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Fundamental Genetics
• Dichotomous traits – occur in
one form or the other, never in
combination
• True-breeding lines – interbred
members always produce
offspring with the same trait
• Mendel studied dichotomous
traits in true-breeding lines of
pea plants
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Mendel’s Experiments
Phenotype – observable traits
Genotype – traits present in the genes
Homozygous – 2 identical alleles (BB, ww)
Heterozygous – 2 different alleles (Bw)
Adapted from Iacono & Koenig, 1983.
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Chromosomes: Reproduction and Recombination
• Genes are located on
chromosomes in the nucleus of
each cell
• Humans have 23 pairs of
chromosomes, with an allele on
each chromosome
• Meiosis – a process of cell division
that yields cells with just 23
chromosomes
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Chromosomes: Reproduction and
Recombination
When egg
and sperm
Gametes, combine to form
Mitosis
egg cells and – a form of cell
a fertilized egg
division that yields daughter
sperm cells, (zygote), 23
are produced
cells that have 23 pairs of of
pairs
by meiosis
chromosomes chromosomes
are again
present
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Chromosomes: Structure and Replication
Chromosomes are DNA
molecules: double strands of
nucleotide bases wrapped
around each other
• A nucleotide on strand 1
always pairs with a particular
nucleotide on strand 2
• To replicate, the strands
unwind; each nucleotide
attracts its complementary
base, making two DNA
molecules identical to the
original
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Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Traits
Sex chromosomes, X and Y,
look different and carry
different genes
• Female = XX
• Male = XY
Sex-linked traits –
influenced by genes on the
sex chromosomes
Dominant traits on the X
chromosome will be seen
more commonly in females,
recessive ones in males
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Genetic Code and Gene Expression
Mechanism of gene expression
• Strand of DNA unravels
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
synthesized from DNA
(transcription)
• mRNA leaves nucleus and
attaches to ribosome
in the cell’s cytoplasm
• Ribosome synthesizes protein
according to 3-base sequences
(codons) of mRNA (translation)
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Genetic Code and Gene Expression
• Enhancers: stretches of DNA that
determine whether particular
structural genes initiate the
synthesis of proteins and at what
rate
• Transcription factors: proteins that
bind to DNA and influence the
extent to which genes are expressed
• Epigenetics: the pattern of actual
gene expression, vs. the genes
possessed, is most important
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Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondria
have their own DNA
Mitochondrial
DNA Mitochondria are
the energy-generating Mitochondria
structures found were once
in the cytoplasm of believed to come
all cells from mother, but
paternal
mitochondrial DNA
Constant rate of has been found in
mitochondrial DNA mutation one
Mitochondrial DNA Has been used as evolutionary individual
may be responsible clock to determine,
for some for instance, that
disorders hominids
evolved in Africa and
spread around the world
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Modern Genetics
• Human genome project mapped the 3
billion base sequences of human DNA,
as well as those of some other species
• Humans were found to have only
about 25 thousand genes, leading to
new discoveries
• microRNA appears to have an
expanded role in gene expression,
beyond carrying information from the
nucleus
• Some genes produce more than one
protein
• Evidence for expression of only one
allele of a gene (monoallelic
expression) has accumulated in the
past few years
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Behavioral Development: Interaction of
Genetic Factors and Experience
Three influential studies:
1. Selective breeding
of “maze-bright”
and “maze-dull”
rats
2. Phenylketonuria: a
single-gene
metabolic disorder
3. Development of
birdsong
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Behavioral Development
Maze-dull rats did not
make significantly
more errors than
maze-bright rats when
both groups were
reared in an enriched
environment.
(Adapted from Cooper
& Zubek, 1958.)
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Behavioral Development
Phenylketonura: A Single-Gene
Metabolic Disorder
• Due to single mutant recessive
gene
• Special diet during critical
period of development lessens
mental retardation
• An example of interaction of
genetics and environment
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Behavioral Development
Development of Birdsong
• Young males must hear their
species’ songs during critical
period, or they develop abnormal
songs
• Young male canaries have left-side
neurological dominance for song,
like human left dominance for
speech
• Adult male canaries grow new
neurons each spring: an early
discovery of adult neurogenesis
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Genetics of Human Psychological Differences
• Minnesota study of
twins reared apart showed that
identical twins more similar than
fraternal twins on all
psychological dimensions
• Heritability estimates
• Multiplier effect – genetically
similar individuals seek out
similar environments
• Turkheimer et al. (2003) –
heritability of IQ was near 0 in
impoverished twins and near 1
(maximum) in affluent twins
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Watch: The Complexity of Humans:
Phil Zimbardo
Watch: Dating and Finding a Mate (Ralf)
Watch: Dating and Finding a Mate
(Stephanie)
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Acknowledgments
Slide Image Description Image Source
template lightning ©istockphoto.com/Soubrette
template background texture ©istockphoto.com/Hedda Gjerpen
ch02 image twin boys ©istockphoto.com/RichardUpshur
4, 15, 17 brain ©istockphoto.com/Stephen Kirklys
6 Figure 2.1 Pinel 8e, p. 22
6 chimpanzee smiling ©istockphoto.com/Eric Isselée
7 Figure 2.3 Pinel 8e, p. 25
9 Figure 2.4 Pinel 8e, p. 26
10 Friends talking ©istockphoto.com/Chris Schmidt
12 Adapted from Figure 2.9 Pinel 8e, p. 30
14, 34 book ©istockphoto.com/Carmen Martínez Banús
16 Figure 2.13 Pinel 8e, p. 33
19 person thinking ©istockphoto.com/akurtz
20, 21, 23, 27, 30, 33 DNA ©istockphoto.com/Mark Evans
22 Figure 2.15 Pinel 8e, p. 37
25 Figure 2.17 Pinel 8e, p. 38
26 woman observing & taking notes ©istockphoto.com/Claudio Arnese
28 Figure 2.19 Pinel 8e, p. 40
31 text messaging ©iStockphoto.com/Freeze Frame Studio, Inc.
32 Figure 2.22 Pinel 8e, p. 44
35 Figure 2.25 Pinel 8e, p. 46
36 laptop ©istockphoto.com/CostinT
36 table and wall ©istockphoto.com/David Clark
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