Data and Signals

3.1
 Data and Signals
• Ingredients of computer networks
– Computers
– Transmission media
– Hubs/Switches
– Routers, bridges
– Etc.
• Other ingredients
– Software
– Data
– Signals
3.2
 Data
• Data = Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words,
measurements, observations or even just descriptions of
things.

• Data = Data can exist in a variety of forms -- as numbers or

text on pieces of paper, as bits and bytes stored in electronic
memory, or as facts stored in a person's mind.

• Data = Entities that convey meaning within a computer

system

• Examples of data (captured and stored on storage devices)

– Files on a hard drive
– Movie on a DVD
– Music on a CD

3.3
 Data
• In computing, data is information that has been translated
into a form that is more convenient to move or process.

• For transmission, Data (static entities) need to be converted

into signals (dynamic entities)

3.4
Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.

3.5
 Signals
• Signal = convey information or instructions by
means of a gesture, action, or sound.

• instruct (someone) to do something by means

of gestures or signs.

3.6
 Signals
• Signal = Electric or electromagnetic encoding of data for
transmission

• Signal = In electronics, a signal is an electric current or

electromagnetic field used to convey data from one place
to another.

• Signal = An electrical impulse or radio wave transmitted or

received.
– Using a physical transmission medium
– Using airwaves

• Examples of signals (situations)

– Telephone conversation over a telephone line
– Live television news interview from Europe
– Web page download over your telephone line via the Internet
3.7
 Signals
• The simplest form of signal is a direct current (DC) that is
switched on and off

• More complex signals consist of an alternating-current

(AC) or electromagnetic carrier that contains one or more
data streams.

• Data is superimposed on a carrier current or wave by

means of a process called modulation.

• Signal modulation can be done in either of two main ways:

analog and digital.

3.8
 Analog and Digital Data
 Data can be analog or digital.
 Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.
Examples:
– Thermometer – mercury height rises as temperature rises
– Car Speedometer – Needle moves farther right as you accelerate
– Stereo – Volume increases as you turn the knob.

 Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.

Examples:
– Light switch can be either on or off
– Door to a room is either open or closed

3.9
 Analog Signals
• A signal in which some feature increases and decreases in the
same way as the thing being transmitted.

• Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range.

• An analogue signal is one which has a value that varies

smoothly.

• Example:
• The sound waves that your mouth produces when you speak are
analogue - the waves vary in a smooth way. These waves can be
converted into an electrical signal by a microphone. This electrical
signal is also analogue:

3.10
 Digital Signals
• A signal in which the original information is converted into a string of
bits before being transmitted.
• Consists of discrete, discontinuous binary digits. In comparison analog
data consists of continuous waves that vary (fluctuate) infinitely
within a range
• Digital describes electronic technology that generates, stores, and
processes data in terms of two states:
• positive and non-positive.
• Positive is expressed or represented by the number 1
• Non-positive by the number 0.
• Thus, data transmitted or stored with digital technology is expressed
as a string of 0's and 1's.
• Each of these state digits is referred to as a bit
• and a string of bits that a computer can address individually as a
group is a byte.
3.11
Comparison of analog and digital signals

3.12
 Comparison of Analog and Digital Signals
Unlike an analog signal, which is a continuous signal that contains time-varying
quantities, a digital signal has a discrete value at each sampling point.

3.13
 Data and Signals
• Both Data (sources of data) and Signals can
be
– either analog
– or digital
• Four combinations
– Transmitting digital data using digital signals
– Transmitting digital data using analog signals
– Transmitting analog data using analog signals
– Transmitting analog data using digital signals
• Need Translation devices

3.14
 Signals Translators
• Everything stored and processed inside a
computer is a number (digital).
• Computers are unable to process analogues
signals because they are digital devices. For
digital devices such as computers, to work
with analogue devices, conversion is
required...

3.15
 Analogue to Digital Convertor (ADC)
• If you want to attach an analogue input device to a digital device such
as a computer, you will need an analogue to digital convertor (ADC).

A good example of a computer peripheral that requires an ADC is a

microphone. When you plug a microphone into a computer, you are
actually plugging it into an ADC which converts the analogue signals
from the microphone into digital data that the computer can then
process.

3.16
 Digital to Analogue Convertor (DAC)
• If you want to attach an analogue output device to a
digital device such as a computer, you will need a digital
to analogue convertor (DAC).

A good example of a computer peripheral that requires a

DAC is a loudspeaker or headphones. When you plug a
loudspeaker into a computer, you are actually plugging it
into a DAC, which takes digital data from the computer
and converts it into analogue signals which the
loudspeaker then converts into sound.

3.17
 Comparison Chart
Analog Digital

Analog signal is a continuous signal which Digital signals are discrete time signals
Signal
represents physical measurements. generated by digital modulation.

Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves

Uses continuous range of values to represent Uses discrete or discontinuous values to

Representation
information represent information
Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital
Example Human voice in air, analog electronic devices.
electronic devices.
Analog technology records waveforms as they Samples analog waveforms into a limited set of
Technology
are. numbers and records them.

Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in implementation.

Can be used in analog devices only. Best suited Best suited for Computing and digital
Uses
for audio and video transmission. electronics.

Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs

Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit

Power Analog instrument draws large power Digital instrument drawS only negligible power

Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable 3.18
 Signal Characteristics
signal can be represented as a function of
time,
i.e. it varies with time.
it can be also expressed as a function of
frequency,
i.e. a signal can be considered as a composition
of different frequency components.
Thus, a signal has both time-domain and
frequency domain representation.

3.19
 Periodic or Aperiodic Signal
• A signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of time is
called periodic signal.
• A signal which does not repeat itself after a specific interval
of time is called aperiodic signal.

• A signals that repeats its pattern over a period is called

periodic signal,
• A signal that does not repeats its pattern over a period is
called aperiodic signal or non periodic.

• Both the Analog and Digital can be periodic or aperiodic.

But in data communication periodic analog sigals and
aperiodic digital signals are used.

3.20
 Periodic Analog Signal
 In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog
signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
 Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite.
 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals.
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple
sine waves.

3.21
 Sine Wave
 A sine wave, or sinusoid, is the graph of the sine function in
trigonometry.
 A sinusoid is the name given to any curve that can be written in the form

 The sine wave has a pattern that repeats.

 The length of this repeating piece of the sine wave is called the
wavelength.
 The wavelength can be found by measuring the length or distance
between one peak of a sine wave and the next peak.

|A| = amplitude
B = cycles from 0 to
period =
D = vertical shift (or displacement)
C = horizontal shift (sometimes called
"phase shift" when B = 1)

3.22
A sine wave

3.23
 Properties of Sine Waves
 Frequency
 Amplitude
 Period
 Phase

3.24
 Properties of Sine Waves
 Frequency
 The frequency of a sine wave is the number of oscillations a wave has in a certain period of time,
for example one second.

 The number of cycles per unit of time is called the frequency.

 frequency is most often measured in cycles per second (cps)

 The standard unit of frequency is the Hz, abbreviated hertz

 Larger units of frequency include the kilohertz (kHz), (MHz), (GHz)

3.25
 Properties of Sine Waves
 Period
 Period refers to the time that it takes to do something.
 Period, being a time, is measured in units of time such as seconds, hours,
days or years
 Period is the number of seconds/cycle
 So Period is a time quantity.
 Mathematically, the period is the reciprocal of the frequency and vice versa
 In equation form, this is expressed as follows.

3.26
 Properties of Sine Waves
Amplitude
 The amplitude or peak amplitude of a wave is a measure of how big
its oscillation is.
 The Height of a Wave
 Amplitudes are always measured as positive numbers (for example:
3.5, 1, 120) and are never negative (for example: -3.5, -1, -120).
That's because distance can only be greater than zero or equal to
zero; negative distance does not exist.

3.27
Two signals with the same frequency, but different amplitudes

3.28
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

3.29
Two signals with the same amplitude,but different frequencies

3.30
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

3.31
 Example 3.1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:

3.32
 Example 3.2

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).

3.33
 Properties of Sine Waves
Phase
 The phase of a wave, measured in degrees, where 360 degrees is
one wavelength, indicates the current position of the wave relative
to a reference position.
 the position of a point in time (instant) on a waveform
cycle.

Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

3.34
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

3.35
 Example 3.3

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is

3.36
 Time Domain Concept
 The time-domain plot shows changes in signal
amplitude with respect to time
 It is an amplitude-vs-time plot
 Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.

3.37
 Frequency Domain Concepts
 To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we
can use a frequency-domain plot.
 It is an amplitude-vs-frequency plot
 A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak value
and the frequency.
 Changes of amplitude during one period are not shown.
 A complete sinewave is represented by one spike
 The position of the spike shows the frequency
 Its height shows the peak amplitude

3.38
Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

3.39
Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.

3.40
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Figure 3.8 shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

3.41
Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

3.42
 Signals and Communication
• A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications
• We need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine
waves.
• According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

3.43
 Composite Signals and Periodicity

• If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies.
• If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.

3.44
 Example 3.4

Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those
found in data communications. We can consider it to be
three alarm systems, each with a different frequency.
The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.

3.45
Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal

3.46
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

3.47
 Example 3.5

Figure 3.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It

can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

3.48
Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

3.49
 Bandwidth and Signal Frequency

• The range of frequencies contained in a

composite signal is its bandwidth.
• The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.

3.50
Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

3.51
 Example 3.6

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
3.52
Figure 3.13 The bandwidth for Example 3.6

3.53
 Example 3.7

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
3.54
Figure 3.14 The bandwidth for Example 3.7

3.55
 Fourier Analysis

Note

Fourier analysis is a tool that changes a

time domain signal to a frequency
domain signal and vice versa.

3.56
 Digital Signals
• In addition to being represented by an
analog signal, information can also be
represented by a digital signal.
• For example, a I can be encoded as a
positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.

3.57
 Bitrate OR Data Transfer rate
• Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus period and frequency
are not appropriate characteristics.
• Another term-bit rate (instead of frequency)-is used to describe digital
signals.
• The bit rate is the number of bits sent in Is, expressed in bits per
second (bps).
• The speed with which data can be transmitted from one device to
another.
• Data rates are often measured in megabits (million bits) or megabytes
(million bytes) per second. These are usually abbreviated as Mbps and
MBps,respectively.
• Bit Rate = Number of bits/second

3.58
 Example
• Assume we need to download text documents at
the rate of 100 pages per minute. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
• A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters
in each line.
• If we assume that one character requires 8 bits,
• Then the bit rate is
• 100 x 24 x 80 x 8 =1,636,000 bps =1.636 Mbps
3.59
 Baud rate
• Baud rate means the number of times a signal in a communications
channel changes state.
• For example, a 2400 baud rate means that the channel can change
states up to 2400 times per second. When I say 'change state' I mean
that it can change from 0 to 1 up to 2400 times per second.
• similar to the bit rate
• Whether you can transmit 2400 zeros or ones in one second (bit rate),
or change the state of a digital signal up to 2400 times per second
(baud rate), it the same thing.
• There are cases though where a channel can send 4 bits per baud,
meaning that for every 4 bits, we have one change, and in this case,
the baud rate is 1/4th of the bit rate.

3.60