Internet Protocol

Layer reminder
 Bridges - emulate single link
 Everything broadcast
 Same collision domain
 Switches - emulate single network
 Flat addressing
 Broadcast supported
 Internet - connect multiple networks
 Hierarchical addressing
 No broadcast
 Highly scalable
IP service model
 Service provided to transport layer (TCP, UDP)
 Global name space
 Host-to-host connectivity (connectionless)
 Best-effort packet delivery
 Not in IP service model
 Delivery guarantees on bandwidth, delay or loss
 Delivery failure modes
 Packet delayed for a very long time
 Packet loss
 Packet delivered more than once
 Packets delivered out of order
IP addressing

 Ethernet address space

 Flat
 Assigned at manufacture time
 IP address space
 Hierarchical
 Assigned at configuration time
 IP Addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
 IP address: 32-bit 223.1.2.1
identifier for host, 223.1.1.2
router interface 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface: connection 223.1.2.2
between host/router 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
and physical link
 routers typically have
multiple interfaces
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
 host typically has one
interface
 IP addresses
associated with each 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
interface
223 1 1 1
 IP networks
223.1.1.1
 Address has 2 223.1.2.1
components 223.1.1.2
 Network (high-order 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
bits)
223.1.2.2
 Host (low-order bits)
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
 IPv4 Address Model
Class Network ID Host ID # of # of
Addresses Networks
A 0 + 7 bit 24 bit 224-2 126
B 10 + 14 bit 16 bit 65,536 - 2 214
C 110 + 21 bit 8 bit 256 - 2 221
D 1110 + Multicast Address IP Multicast

E Future Use

Class A: 0 Network (7 bits) Host (24 bits)

Class B: 1 0 Network (14 bits) Host (16 bits)
Class C: 1 1 0 Network (21 bits) Host (8 bits)
IP networks
 Class A network: 18.0.0.0 (MIT)
 www.mit.edu has address 18.7.22.83
 Class B network: 128.174.0.0 (UIUC)
 www.cs.uiuc.edu has address 128.174.252.84
 Class C network: 216.125.249.0 (Parkland)
 www.parkland.edu has address 216.125.249.97
CIDR
 3-class model too inflexible
 CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 Arbitrary number of bits to specify
network
 Address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is #
bits in network portion
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

200.23.16.0/23
Classless Domains
 Internet Archive - 207.241.224.0/20
 4K hosts
 207.241.224.0 - 207.241.239.255
 AT&T - 204.127.128.0/18
 16K hosts
 204.127.128.0 - 204.127.191.255
 UUNET - 63.64.0.0/10
 4M hosts
 63.64.0.0 - 63.127.255.255
IP forwarding

 Forwarding table has:

 Network number
 Interface
 Avoid having to store 4 billion entries
 But there are still 2 million class C’s
 …and perhaps more CIDR networks
 Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
all routers identical
network “flat”
… not true in practice

scale: with 200 million administrative autonomy

destinations:  internet = network of
 can’t store all dest’s in networks
routing tables!  each network admin may
 routing table exchange want to control routing in its
would swamp links! own network
 Hierarchical Networks

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23

ISPs-R-Us “Send me anything

with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
Subnetting

 UIUC - 130.126.0.0/16
 130.126.0.0 - 130.126.255.255
 CRHC - 130.126.136.0/21
 130.126.136.0 - 130.126.143.255
 EWS - 130.126.160.0/21
 130.126.160.0 - 130.126.167.255
 Forwarding Tables
Internet
130.126.136.0/21 if1 CRHC
130.126.160.0/21 if2 if1
if4
130.126.0.0/16 if3 if2
0.0.0.0/0 if4 EWS if3

UIUC
 Most specific rule is used
 Most hosts outside of the core have
default rules
 Hierarchical Routing
 aggregate routers into
regions, “autonomous
systems” (AS) Gateway router
 routers in same AS run  Direct link to router
same routing protocol
 “intra-AS” routing protocol in another AS
 routers in different AS can
run different intra-AS
routing protocol
 Interconnected ASes
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d  Forwarding table is
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS Inter-AS
algorithm
Routing Routing  Intra-AS sets entries for
algorithm algorithm
internal dests
Forwarding  Inter-AS & Intra-As sets
table entries for external dests
Inter-AS tasks
 Suppose router in AS1 AS1 needs:
receives datagram for which
1. to learn which dests
dest is outside of AS1
 Router should forward are reachable through
packet towards on of the AS2 and which through
gateway routers, but which AS3
one?
2. to propagate this
reachability info to all
routers in AS1
Job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d
Example: Setting forwarding
table in router 1d
 Suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS
protocol that subnet x is reachable from AS3
(gateway 1c) but not from AS2.
 Inter-AS protocol propagates reachability
info to all internal routers.
 Router 1d determines from intra-AS routing
info that its interface I is on the least cost
path to 1c.
 Puts in forwarding table entry (x,I).
Example: Choosing among multiple
ASes
 Now suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS protocol
that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 To configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should forward
packets for dest x.
 This is also the job on inter-AS routing protocol!
 Hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.

Use routing info Determine from

Learn from inter-AS Hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet Choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table
Intra-AS Routing

 Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols

(IGP)
 Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
standard
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
 Obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring
ASs.
 Propagate the reachability information to all routers
internal to the AS.
 Determine “good” routes to subnets based on reachability
information and policy.
 Allows a subnet to advertise its existence to rest of
the Internet: “I am here”
 BGP basics
• Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over semi-
permanent TCP conctns: BGP sessions
• Note that BGP sessions do not correspond to physical links.
• When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is promising it will
forward any datagrams destined to that prefix towards the prefix.
– AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
 Distributing reachability info
• With eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
• 1c can then use iBGP do distribute this new prefix reach info to
all routers in AS1
• 1b can then re-advertise the new reach info to AS2 over the 1b-
to-2a eBGP session
• When router learns about a new prefix, it creates an entry for the
prefix in its forwarding table.

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
Path attributes & BGP routes
 When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP
attributes.
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 Two important attributes:
 AS-PATH: contains the ASs through which the advert for
the prefix passed: AS 67 AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: Indicates the specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (There may be multiple links from current AS
to next-hop-AS.)
 When gateway router receives route advert, uses
import policy to accept/decline.
BGP route selection
 Router may learn about more than 1 route to some
prefix. Router must select route.
 Elimination rules:
1. Local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. Shortest AS-PATH
3. Closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. Additional criteria
 BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws
old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in
absence of UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN
request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous
msg; also used to close connection
 BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

A,B,C are provider networks
X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
.. so X will not advertise to B a route to C
 BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

A advertises to B the path AW
B advertises to X the path BAW
Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W nor
C are B’s customers
B wants to force C to route to w via A
B wants to route only to/from its customers!
Why different Intra- and Inter-
AS routing ?
 Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic routed,
who routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
 Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
 Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance
Intra-AS Routing

 Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols

(IGP)
 Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

(Cisco proprietary)
 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 Distance vector algorithm
 Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)

From router A to subsets:

u destination hops
v
u 1
A B w v 2
w 2
x 3
x y 3
z C D z 2
y
RIP advertisements

 Distance vectors: exchanged among

neighbors every 30 sec via Response
Message (also called advertisement)
 Each advertisement: list of up to 25
destination nets within AS
 RIP: Example
z
w x y
A D B

Routing table in D C
Dest Next Hops 2
NW Router Dest Distance Vector
w A 2 from A to D
Dest Next hops
y B 2
w - 1
z B A
X X7 5 x - 1
z C 4
x -- 1 …. … ...
... ... ...
 RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec --> neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables
changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
 infinite distance = 16 hops
 RIP Table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-
level process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
routed routed

Transprt Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical
OSPF
(Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 Uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 Topology map at each node
 Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
router
 Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
 Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than
TCP or UDP
OSPF “advanced” features
(not in RIP)
 Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
 Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
 For each link, multiple cost metrics
 Integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data base
as OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Hierarchical OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area

 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know

direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 Area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets in
own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.
IPv4 Address Translation
support
 IP addresses to LAN physical addresses
 Problem
 An IP route can pass through many physical
networks
 Data must be delivered to destination’s physical
network
 Hosts only listen for packets marked with
physical interface names
 Each hop along route
 Destination host
IP to Physical Address
Translation
 Hard-coded
 Encode physical address in IP address
 Ex: Map Ethernet addresses to IP addresses
 Makes it impossible to associate address with topology
 Fixed table
 Maintain a central repository and distribute to
hosts
 Bottleneck for queries and updates
 Automatically generated table
 Use ARP to build table at each host
 Use timeouts to clean up table
Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP)
 Check table for physical address
 If address not present
 Broadcast a query, include host’s translation
 Wait for a response
 Upon receipt of ARP query
 Targeted host responds with address translation
 Timeout and discard entries after O(10) minutes
ARP snooping

 Due to broadcast nature, other hosts overhear ARP

exchange
 If address already present
 Refresh entry and reset timeout
 If address not present
 Add entry for requesting host
 Ignore for other hosts
 ARP example
eth7->broadcast who-has 10.0.0.3 tell 10.0.0.1

IP: 10.0.0.1 IP: 10.0.0.2 IP: 10.0.0.3

Eth: 7 A Eth: 13 B Eth: 25 C

eth25->eth7 10.0.0.3 is-at eth25

A’s table C’s table

10.0.0.3 eth 25 10.0.0.1 eth 7

ARP Packet

0 8 16 31
Hardware type = 1 ProtocolType = 0x0800

HLEN = 48 PLEN = 32 Operation

SourceHardwareAddr (bytes 0 – 3)

SourceHardwareAddr (bytes 4 – 5) SourceProtocolAddr (bytes 0 – 1)

SourceProtocolAddr (bytes 2 – 3) TargetHardwareAddr (bytes 0 – 1)

TargetHardwareAddr (bytes 2 – 5)

TargetProtocolAddr (bytes 0 – 3)
Host Configuration
 Plug new host into network
 How much information must be known?
 What new information must be assigned?
 How can process be automated?
 Some answers
 Host needs an IP address (must know it)
 Host must also
 Send packets out of physical (direct) network
 Thus needs physical address of router
Host Configuration
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 Translate physical address to IP address
 Used to boot diskless hosts
 Host broadcasts request to boot
 RARP server tells host the host’s own IP address
 Boot protocol (BOOTP)
 Use UDP packets for same purpose as RARP
 Allows boot requests to traverse routers
 IP address of BOOTP server must be known
 Also returns file server IP, subnet mask, and default router
for host
Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)

 A simple way to automate

configuration information
 Network administrator does not need to
enter host IP address by hand
 Good for large and/or dynamic networks
Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)
 New machine sends request to DHCP server for assignment
and information
 Server receives
 Directly if new machine given server’s IP address
 Through broadcast if on same physical network
 Via DHCP relay nodes that forward requests onto the server’s
physical network
 Server assigns IP address and provides other info
 Can be made secure (present signed request or just a “valid”
physical address)
DHCP

DHCP DHCP
Server Relay Host A
Host A broadcasts
DHCPDISCOVER
Host A message
broadcasts Relay unicasts
DHCP DHCP request Server
request to server responds
with host’s
IP address
DHCP
Host B Other
Server
Network
s