Intro to SQL

Structured Query Language

• Language that provides an interface to relational database systems.

• Developed by IBM in 1970s for use in System R and is de facto

standard as well as an ISO and ANSI standard.

Many standards out there:

• ANSI SQL, SQL92 (a.k.a. SQL2), SQL99 (a.k.a. SQL3), ….

• SEQUEL: Structured English QUEry Language;

 Components of SQL
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Used to create, modify and delete database structures but not data.
• Not used by general user and are limited to DBA.
• Immediate statements i.e. not susceptible to roll back.

DDL statements include:

CREATE: To create objects in database

ALTER: Alters the structure of database
DROP: Delete objects from database
COMMENT: Add comments to the data dictionary
GRANT: Gives user’s access privileges
REVOKE: Withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• Allows changing data within the database.
• Query one or more tables

DML statements include:

INSERT: To insert data into a table

UPDATE: Updates existing data within a table
DELETE: Delete all records from a table
LOCK: Table Control Concurrency
• Data Control Language (DCL)
• Control access to data and to the database
• Occasionally grouped with DML statements

• COMMIT: Save Work Done

• SAVEPOINT: Identify a point in a transaction to which we can roll back
• ROLLBACK: Restore database to original since last COMMIT.
• GRANT/REVOKE

• Data Query Language (DQL)

• SELECT: Retrieve Data from the database
 Basic Data Types

• character-string
• CHAR(N) (or CHARACTER(N)) is a fixed-length character string. Maximum characters
supported 255
• VARCHAR(N) (or CHAR VARYING(N), or CHARACTER VARYING(N)) is a variable-length
character string with at most N characters.

• number
• Both fixed and floating point
 Constraints in SQL
• NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

• UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different

• PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies

each row in a table

• FOREIGN KEY - Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table

• CHECK - Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition

• DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified

• INDEX - Use to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly
 Create TABLE

• A name can have maximum upto 30 characters

• Allowed charset: A-Z, a-z and numbers 0-9
• Name should begin with an alphabet
• _ is allowed
• No Reserve words

Syntax

Create Table <tablename> (<column name 1><Datatype> (<size>),

<Columnname2><Datatype> (<size>));
 CREATE TABLE student_master (
stuID number(3) NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
);

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different.

CREATE TABLE student_master (

stuID number(3) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
);
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.

Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.

CREATE TABLE student_master (

stuID number(3) PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
);
 Alter TABLE
To add or drop columns on existing tables.

ALTER TABLE statement syntax:

ALTER TABLE <table name>
ADD attr datatype (size);
ALTER TABLE FoodCart (
or ADD sold int
DROP COLUMN attr; );

ALTER TABLE FoodCart(

DROP COLUMN profit
);
To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" column when
the table is already created

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName);

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY;

ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT PK_Person;
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID number(3) NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age number(2) CHECK (Age>=18)
);

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CHECK (Age>=18);
CREATE TABLE student_master (
stuID number NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age number(2),
City varchar(255) DEFAULT ‘ABC'
);
 FOREIGN KEY

CREATE TABLE Orders (

OrderID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);
 Insert Statement

To insert a row into a table, it is necessary to have a value for each attribute,
and order matters.

INSERT statement syntax:

INSERT into <table name>
VALUES ('value1', 'value2', NULL);
Example: INSERT into FoodCart
VALUES (’02/26/08', ‘pizza', 70 );
 Update Statement

To update the content of the table:

UPDATE statement syntax:
UPDATE <table name> SET <attr> = <value>
WHERE <selection condition>;
Example: UPDATE FoodCart SET sold = 349
WHERE date = ’02/25/08’ AND food = ‘pizza’;
 Select Statement

• The main element in a SQL query is the SELECT statement.

• A properly written SELECT statement will always produce a result in
the form of one or more rows of output.
• The SELECT statement chooses (selects) rows from one or more tables
according to specific criteria.
Example

SELECT *
FROM employee;

•The asterisk (*) tells Oracle to select (display) all columns contained in the
table “employee”.
 THE DISTINCT CLAUSE
• Oracle provides a means for eliminating duplicate rows in a result table
through use of the DISTINCT keyword .
SELECT emp_salary
FROM employee;
EMP_SALARY
-----------------
$55,000.00
$43,000.00
$43,000.00
$25,000.00
$25,000.00
$30,000.00
$38,000.00
$25,000.00
8 rows selected.
• The query is rewritten using the DISTINCT keyword to eliminate
duplicate rows.
SELECT DISTINCT emp_salary
FROM employee;

EMP_SALARY
-------------------
$25,000.00
$30,000.00
$38,000.00
$43,000.00
$55,000.00
 THE WHERE CLAUSE

• Specific rows can be selected by adding a WHERE clause to the SELECT

query.
SELECT eid, ename, dept
FROM employee
WHERE emp_salary >= 35000;
Operator

= equal to
< less than
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
<= less than or equal to
!= not equal to
<> not equal to
!> not greater than
!< not less than
 Comparing Character Data

• Comparison operators are not limited to numeric data.

• They can also be used with columns containing character data.
• If the value is a character string or date, you must surround the value
(string of characters) with which a column is being compared with single
quotation (' ') marks.

SELECT emp_id, emp_name FROM employee

WHERE emp_gender = 'M';
 THE ORDER BY CLAUSE
• Output from a SELECT statement can be sorted by using the optional ORDER BY
clause.
SELECT emp_last_name, emp_first_name
FROM employee
WHERE emp_last_name >= 'J'
ORDER BY emp_last_name;
EMP_LAST_NAME EMP_FIRST_NAME
------------------------- --------------------------
Joshi Dinesh
Joyner Suzanne
Markis Marcia
To sort columns from high to low, or descending, an optional keyword DESC
must be specified.

ASC - Ascending, low to high.

DESC - Descending, high to low
 IN and NOT IN

Select * from table where field IN (value1, value2)

Select FNAME, LNAME from emp where FNAME IN (‘Amit’, ‘Mohit’)

Aggregate Functions

AVG, MIN, MAX, COUNT, SUM

Select AVG(sal) from emp;

Select AVG(sal) “Employee Salary” from emp;

• COUNT: Returns the number of rows.
• COUNT(*) Returns the number of rows including duplicates and nulls.

• Select count(eid) from emp;

• MAX: Returns max value of expression.

• Select max(sal) from emp;
 EXERCISE
Create the Table Column Data Type Size Default Attributes
Name
Name: Client_Master
Clientno Varchar2 6 PK
CName Varchar2 20 NOT NULL
Address1 Varchar2 30
• Create table with all the attributes and
constraints. City Varchar2 15
• Find out the names of all the clients Pincode Number 8 Should Start
• Retrieve the entire contents of Client_Master with A
table State Varchar2 15
• Retrieve the list of names, city and the state of Baldue Number 10,2
all the clients.
• Change the city of any one client.
• Change the baldue of any client to Rs 5000
• Delete the record of client where client no=101
• Find the client whose Baldue is maximum.
• Find the names of clients with second highest
baldue.
• Find all those clients whose name starts with ‘A’