Prepared and Delivered by:

Mr. Vinayaka G.P, M.Tech

Asst. Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
Vidya Vikas Institute of Technology, Mysuru
 Basics of Physical chemistry
 Mathematics
 Integral Calculus
 Differential Calculus
 Partial Differentiation

 Ability to work with numbers, proper usage of scientific calculator and data handbooks.
 Reference Textbooks:
1. Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach, Yunus A.Cenegal and Michael A.Boles, Tata
McGraw Hill publications.

2. Basic and Applied Thermodynamics, P.K.Nag, 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw Hill Publications.
3. Basic Thermodynamics, Dr. M.K Murlidhara
 Derived from Greek Word : ‘Therme’ (Heat) and ‘Dynamis’ (Power).

 Basically focuses on Obtaining Power from Heat.

 It’s the science of energy transfer and its effect on physical properties of the

substances.

 Deals with energy conversion, energy exchange and direction of exchange.

 Learning how well these interactions could be used for our benefit.
 Thermodynamics governs the following:
 Energy and its transformation
 Feasibility of processes involved in Energy Transformation
 Feasibility of processes involved in Transfer of Energy
 Equilibrium processes.

 Thus, Thermodynamics is a science that studies various energy interactions, notably heat and

work transfer, with matter that brings about changes in its properties that are measurable.

 The principles of thermodynamics are summarized in the form of a set of axioms called

governing laws, an insight towards these would benefit us in better understanding of the subject.
  Zeroth Law: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in equilibrium with
1st Law Zeroth Law each other.
(Conservation of (Thermal Equilibrium
Energy and Concept and Temperature  1st Law: When energy passes, as work, as heat, or
of Internal Energy) Measurement) with matter, into or out from a system, the system's
internal energy changes in accord with the law of
conservation of energy.
 2nd Law: In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum
2nd Law of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic
(Deals with 3rd Law systems increases.
conversion of (Absolute Zero of
Internal Energy into Entropy)  3rd Law: The entropy of a system approaches a
work, introduces the constant value as the temperature approaches
concept of Entropy)
absolute zero.
 Energy is the ability to do work

 Energy transformation: process of changing energy of one form to another.

 Law of conservation energy: Energy can nether be created nor be destroyed, but it can be
transferred from one form to another.

 Macroscopic modes of energy:

 Kinetic Energy (Energy possessed by the virtue of its motion)

 Potential Energy (Energy possessed by the virtue of its elevation or configuration )

 Microscopic modes of energy:

 Energy due to random motion of molecules

 E=K.E+P.E+U+ECh+Enu

 The total energy is the sum of Kinetic energy, potential energy, internal energy, chemical energy
and nuclear energy.
 Heating the water to our comfort for bathing !!

 Heating a cup of coffee !!

 Cooking/Baking food in a oven !!

 Burning the fuel to run Bikes/cars/buses to reach our destination !!

 Using a room heater during cold nights

 Using Air-Conditioners during summer days

 Heating up Coal in thermal power plants

Largest amount of energy that can be obtained, least amount of power that can be
consumed, least amount of fuel that can be consumed, extraction of maximum
power are some of the questions that are answered by studying
THERMODYNAMICS
 WHERE DOES THERMODYNAMICS FIT IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ???
 Mechanical engineering basically deals with design and production of
machinery (mechanical systems), that are concerned to obtain useful work
from the natural resources.
 The flavor of Mechanical engineering lies in Thermodynamics with
designing of machines/systems that are involved in converting “Heat” to
“Work” or vice-versa.
 The mechanical system here is called a “Thermodynamic System”.

Natural Useful
Machines Work
Resources (Mechanical Systems)
 Need of thermodynamics for a Mechanical Engineer:

 To adopt the best possible interactions between heat, work and properties of the system in
designing of engineering devices.
 It forms the basis for analysis, development and design of Automobiles, Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning systems, Power plants, Aerospace etc.
 For Environmental Impact Assessment of the processes.

 Practical Applications of Engineering Thermodynamic Systems:

 Steam Power Plant

 Internal Combustion engines (I.C Engines)

 Domestic Refrigerator

 Fuel cells

 Air conditioning system

 Thermodynamic Analysis of Steam Power Plant:

 Amount of fossil fuel that’s to be burned for

generation of the steam required to do work on

the turbine. (Rate of Combustion)

 Pressure and Temperature analysis for design of

Condenser, super-heater and economizer devices

 Design of turbines based on the nature of work

output.

 Adoption of suitable pumps for pumping out the

coolant based on flow rate of steam, design of heat

exchanger systems based on heat transfer rate.

 Analysis of the exhaust gases that are released by

the boiler
 Thermodynamic Analysis of IC Engine:
 Determination of amount of fuel to be burnt

for getting the desired power output.

 Minimization of pollutants by complete

combustion of the fuel.

 Combustion analysis of the fuel.

 Design of combustion chamber.

 Requirement of a suitable cooling system.

 Performance study of the engine by suitable

experiments.
 Thermodynamic Analysis of Refrigerator
 COP Analysis of refrigerants

 Selection of suitable design for evaporator,

compressor and condenser.
 Analysis of temperature, pressure, electrical
power consumption and mass flow
measurements in the system.
 Pressure temperature analysis of
refrigerants based on application.
 Power optimization for compressor work.
 Two viewpoints from which behavior of matter can be studied:
1. Macroscopic Viewpoint

2. Microscopic Viewpoint

 Macroscopic Viewpoint: certain amount of matter is considered for study without

considering the events occurring at molecular level. The macroscopic approach to

thermodynamics doesn’t require the understanding of individual particles, this
approach is called Classical Thermodynamics.

 Microscopic Viewpoint: in this viewpoint matter is considered to be composed of

myriads of molecules and behavior of matter is described by summing up the behavior

of each molecule. This approach to thermodynamics where the average behavior of
large group of particles is considered is called Statistical Thermodynamics.
 MACROSCOPIC APPROACH MICROSCOPIC APPROACH
 In this approach a certain quantity of matter is  This approach considers that the systems is
considered without taking into account the made up of a very large numbers of the
events occurring at molecular level. discrete particle known as molecules.
 Analysis of macroscopic systems requires  Advanced statistical and mathematical methods
simple mathematical formulae. are needed to explain the changes in the
system
 The values of the properties of system are their
average values. Example: pressure of the gas is  The overall behavior of the matter is predicted
the average value of the pressure exerted by by statistically averaging the behavior of
millions of individual molecules . individual molecules. The values of these
energies are constantly changing with time.
 Ex: Pressure exerted by Gas in a container is
directly measured by a pressure gauge without  Ex: Temperature of gas at microscopic level is a
considering the action of individual gas function of velocity of molecules.
molecules.
 Complicated approach as large number of
 Simple approach as few properties are variables are required to describe system.
required to describe the system. Macroscopic Microscopic properties cannot be perceived by
properties Can be measured and perceived by human senses.
human senses
  System: "quantity of matter or a region in space/universe chosen for study

or analysis.” It is the subset of Universe. It is a macroscopically

identifiable collection of matter on which the analysis is performed. It is
Surroundings analogous to free body diagram considered in engineering mechanics.

System  Surroundings: The mass or region external to the system and that has a

perceptible effect on system is called surrounding.

 Boundary: real or the imaginary surface that separates the system from
Boundary surroundings is called boundary. The boundary can fixed, movable,
diathermic or adiabatic. It is the contact surface shared by both system
and surroundings. Mathematically it has zero thickness hence doesn’t
have any mass nor occupy any volume in space.
 A thermodynamic system can be classified into three types based on fixed mass or volume in
space chosen for study:
1. Open System
2. Closed system
3. Isolated system

 Open system (Control Volume): the open system is a properly selected region in space
that allows mass transfer as well as energy transfer through its boundaries. It usually
encloses a device that involves mass flow, the flow through these devices is studied by
selecting the region within the device as control volume
 Ex: Compressor, Nozzle, Turbine.

 Closed system (Control mass): the closed system is one that consists of fixed amount of
mass and doesn’t allow mass transfer through its boundaries, but allows energy transfer
through it either in the form of heat or work.
 Ex: air fuel mixture in the combustion chamber during compression stroke of an IC engine
 Isolated System: the system that doesn’t allow both mass and as well energy transfer across its

boundaries is called an isolated system. It is of fixed mass and energy.

 Ex: Thermos flask, Universe

 The type of system must be chosen carefully for the analysis of the thermodynamic problems.

 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems: A system composed of a single phase is called

homogeneous system and a system composed more than one phase is called heterogeneous
system.
 Most of the engineering devices are modelled as control volumes rather than control
masses, as they allow mass flow in and out of the system. The boundaries of the control
volumes are called control surfaces.
 The control surface can be real or imaginary.
 Control surface can be of fixed shape and size or it can have a moving boundary
 The control volume can also involve heat and work transfer along with the mass transfer.
 Any observable characteristics that defines the physical condition of a system and can be
evaluated quantitatively is called property.
Ex:Volume, temperature, mass, thermal expansion co-efficient, modulus of elasticity etc.

 They are macroscopic in nature, a system with definite values of its properties is said to be in
definite state.
 Properties are the coordinates to measure the state of the system.

 Properties of a system may be Extensive or Intensive.

 Extensive properties are those that are dependent on the mass of the system such as volume,
energy, total momentum etc.
 Intensive properties are those that aren’t dependent on the mass of the system such as
temperature, pressure etc.
 Specific Properties Extensive properties per unit mass of the system are called specific
properties and are intensive properties. Ex: Specific gravity, specific energy, specific volume etc.
 Independent and Dependent properties: If a property can be varied
at will independently of other properties then the property is said to
be independent property. Temperature & pressure of the gas can be
varied independently. If variation of a particular property affects the
other property of the system, then the property is said to be
dependent. In vapor formation temperature at which liquid boils
depends upon pressure, hence temperature depends upon pressure.
 Transport property: property which is a function of time, that defines
the rate at which an interaction can occur.
Ex: Viscosity, Thermal conductivity
 Units of measurements: system of units employed in thermodynamics
is identical with those used in engineering mechanics.

 International system of units (SI Units) is used

1. Base Units : for measuring primary quantities, Mass (kg) Length (m)
Time (s) Temperature (K)
2. Derived units: for measuring physical quantities other than primary
quantities
 State: the condition of the system defined by values of all its properties at any
instant of time is called State. It gives the complete description of the system.
 Change of state: any operations in which one or more properties of the
systems changes, then change of state has occurred.
 State Diagram: it’s a diagram on Cartesian co-ordinates, with any two
independent properties being represented on the co-ordinate axes. It
represents the state of the system at different instants.
 Phase: It is a quantity of mass that is homogeneous in chemical composition
and physical structure
Ex : Liquid phase, solid phase
 Path: succession of states passed through during a change of state is called
Path.
 Process: when the path is completely specified, the change of state is called
process.
Ex: Constant Pressure process
 Cycle: a cycle is a series of state changes with the initial and final state being
identical.
 Phase: when a substance is of the same nature throughout its mass, then its said to be in phase.

 Two property rule: if two independent properties of a pure substance are defined, then all the other
properties or the state of the substance is also defined. If the state of the system is known then the
phase or the mixture of the phases is also known.

 Types of Processes:

 Isothermal Process: the process is carried out a constant temperature.

 Isochoric process: the process is carried out a constant volume.

 Isobaric process: the process is carried out a constant pressure.

 Adiabatic process: the process is said to be adiabatic if the process occurs within the system enclosed by an
adiabatic wall.

 Reversible process: the process is said to be reversible if the system and its surroundings are restored to their
respective initial states by reversing the process.

 Irreversible process: the process is irreversible if the initial states of the system and surroundings cannot be
restored by reversing the process.
 Quasi means ‘almost’, thus it means almost a static process.
 A quasi-static process is one that that takes place infinitely slowly so that the system passes
successively through equilibrium states.
 The departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamic equilibrium state will be
infinitesimally small.
 It’s a reversible process.
 Its an idealized process and not a true representation of the actual process, however many
processes approximate the quasi-static process and can be modelled as the same with
negligible errors.
 They are considered by engineers as they are easy to model and analyze and secondly work-
producing devices deliver the most when they operate on quasi equilibrium process. Thus
they are served as standards to which actual processes can be compared.
 Equilibrium: State of balance, a system is said to be in equilibrium if there are no unbalanced
potentials (driving force) within the system.
 A system in equilibrium experiences no changes (changes in macroscopic properties) when it is
isolated from the surroundings.

 A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if the conditions for following equilibriums

are satisfied:
1. Mechanical Equilibrium (no unbalanced forces in the system)

2. Chemical Equilibrium (no chemical reaction such as diffusion within the system)

3. Thermal equilibrium ( no temperature differential, temperature is same throughout the system)

4. Phase Equilibrium( no indifference in the masses of each phase)

A system is said to be thermodynamic equilibrium if no change in property occurs when it is isolated from
its surroundings, i.e there would be no unbalanced forces and temperature gradients within the system, no
chemical interaction or phase transfer within the system.
 PRESSURE
 It is the normal force exerted by the fluid against the unit area of
the bounding surface. SI unit for pressure is Pascal (Pa) which is the
force of 1Newton (N) acting on an area of 1m2 .
P >1atm
 Used with gases or liquid, counterpart of pressure in solids is
Normal stress.
P= 1atm  1Pa =1Nm-2
 1bar =105Pa or 100kPa or 0.1MPa
P<1atm  1atm=101.325kPa = 1.01325bar
 Pressure measuring devices indicate pressure relative to the
atmospheric pressure.
P=0  Pressure relative to atmosphere is called Gauge pressure and
pressure relative to perfect vacuum is called Absolute pressure.
 Pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum pressure.
 It is a scalar quantity.

Absolute Pressure =Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge pressure

Absolute Pressure =Atmospheric Pressure - Vacuum Pressure
 Variation of Pressure with depth
Consider a rectangular fluid element of height ∆z, length ∆x and unit
depth in equilibrium, let 𝜌 be the density of the fluid i.e. constant, a
force balance equation in z-direction gives:
Σ𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧 = 0
𝑃2. Δ𝑥 − 𝑃1. Δ𝑥 − 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑥Δ𝑧 = 0

Dividing by Δ𝑥 ,
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 − 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑧 = 0

If P2-P1=∆P is the change in pressure, then

Δ𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑧 = 0
Δ𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑧
Thus, pressure difference between two points in a constant density
fluid is proportional to the vertical distance between the two points.
This vertical distance ∆z is used as a measure of pressure and is called
the vertical head.
 Density (𝜌): Mass (m in kg) per unit volume (V in m3), SI Unit is kgm-3
𝑚
𝜌= kgm-3
𝑉
 Specific Volume (v): it’s the reciprocal of density, i.e. the volume per unit mass
𝑉 1
𝜗= = m3kg-1
𝑚 𝜌

 Density of a substance usually depends on temperature and pressure. Density of gases is

directly proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature.
 Specific Gravity or relative density: ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance at a specified temperature.
𝜌
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 SG is a dimensionless quantity and its numerical value is exactly equal to its density in kgm-3

 Specific weight is the weight of a unit volume of a substance and is given by 𝛾𝑠 = 𝜌𝑔

 Temperature is the property that distinguishes Thermodynamics from other
branches of engineering.
 It is the measure of degree of Hotness or Coldness of the Body.
 It’s a property of a system that determines if the system is in thermal
equilibrium with the other system.
 When two bodies at different temperatures are bought into contact with each
other, they attain a common temperature and continue to exist in thermal
equilibrium.
 If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other, i.e. when a body A is in thermal
equilibrium with body B and also separately with body C, then B and C are said
to be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is the zeroth law of
thermodynamics and is the basis of temperature measurement.
 Experiments have shown that certain measurable properties changes with
change in temperature, hence measuring such changes is the indirect
estimation of change in temperature and thermometers the devices that are
used to measure temperature operate on this principle.
 If S1 is in thermal equilibrium with S3 and S2 is in
thermal equilibrium with S3, then S1 and S2 shall be in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
 Systems S1 and S2 are separated by an adiabatic wall
and both are in communication with S3 through a
diathermic wall. After sometime the systems S1 and
S2 reaches thermal equilibrium with S3. Once thermal
equilibrium is reached there will be no changes in
properties of S1 and S2.
 At this instant, if the adiabatic wall and diathermic
walls are swapped as shown in figure b, there shall be
no changes in the properties of S1 and S2. This proves
the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
 The significance of the zeroth law is it provides the
basis for temperature measurement. Though its not a
mathematical proposition it represents the empirical
information on temperature and thermal equilibrium.
 The measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body is known as its temperature.
 When a substance receives heat the following effects are observed :Change in volume,
Change in pressure, Change in electric resistance, Change in radiation, Change in thermo-
electric e.m.f.,and Change in color.
 Any of these changes can be used for the measurement of temperature.
 The instrument used to measure the temperature by making used of expansion of a substance
is known as thermometer. The substance use is known as thermometric substance. Since
solids, liquids and gases expand on heating any of these three can be used to construct a
thermometer.
 Solids should be heated to a high temperature. So, the expansion of solids is used to measure
high temperatures.
 Liquids expand at moderate temperatures and so the thermometers making use of expansion
of liquids are used to measure moderate temperatures.
 In the case of gases, the expansion is very large even at low temperatures or for a small
change in temperature. So, thermometers making use of gas as thermometric substance are
used to measure low temperatures.
 A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas. Gas is the
working fluid in such a thermometer and the types of gas thermometers in use are:
1. Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer

2. Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

 The constant pressure gas thermometer is not used in practice because of the errors which arise
due to the non – uniformity of tube bore.
 The constant volume gas thermometer is the most accurate laboratory thermometer and is used for
the calibration of other thermometers.
CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER
 CONSTRUCTION:
 It consists of a tiny gas bulb ‘B’ connected to a U-Tube mercury manometer through a capillary. The bulb
contains a mass of permanent gas at a lower pressure, usually Helium or Hydrogen. The bottom of the
manometer is connected to a mercury reservoir through a flexible tube. This manometer is used to measure
the pressure.
 There is an indicating point marked at the top of the manometer limb connected to the bulb. The open limb
and the mercury reservoir are open to the atmosphere. The bulb is exposed to the system whose
temperature is to be measured.
 OPERATION PRINCIPLE:
 This thermometer is based on the principle that at low pressures, the temperature of a gas is proportional
to its pressure at constant volume. That is, the temperature of a gas of fixed volume varies linearly with
pressure at sufficiently low pressures. Then the relationship between the temperature and the pressure of
the gas in the vessel can be expressed as:
T=a + b. P
Where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants and their values are determined experimentally
 Working:
 The bulb is made to communicate with the system whose temperature is to be measured. When the bulb
attains a thermal equilibrium with the system, the gas at a constant volume with increased temperature
results in the increased pressure (Gay-Lussac Law), the mercury reservoir is moved up or down until the
mercury meniscus in the left limb coincides with the indicating mark.
 The difference in the heights between the mercury meniscus in the two limbs ‘h’ is the measure of the gauge
pressure. The absolute pressure of the gas is given by p = p0+ ρgh. This pressure is proportional to the
temperature of the gas which is given by the equation:
θ= (273.15 p)/Ptp
Where ptp is the pressure read by the constant gas volume thermometer while sensing the triple point of
water.
 Merits and De-merits of a Constant Volume Gas Thermometer:
1. More sensitive compared to other thermometers
2. Can work uniformly over a wide range of temperatures
3. Since the expansion of glass is negligible when compared to the expansion of the gas the error due to
expansion of glass is negligible.
4. Not easily portable
5. The construction of constant Volume gas thermometer requires high degree of precision.
6. Takes some time to measure the temperature, not a quick thermometer
7. Can measure the temperatures of the bodies which can be bought in contact with the bulb only.
 This consists of a tiny sensing element filled with a certain quantity of mercury. This mercury is
in communication with an evacuated capillary. The thermometric scale is marked on the glass
stem surrounding the capillary.
 When the sensing element is exposed to a system whose temperature is to be measured the
volume of mercury in the sensing bulb changes and accordingly the mercury level in the
capillary keeps changing and reaches as steady value once the thermal equilibrium is reached.
 The temperature of the system is then read from the scale. The length of expansion ‘L’ is the
thermometric property