Why are data collected?

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 What kind of data are collected?

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 What kind of data are collected?

❑ Medical & pharmaceutical sciences...

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 What kind of data are collected?

❑Medical & pharmaceutical sciences...

❑ Financial companies & institutions...

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 What kind of data are collected?

❑Medical & pharmaceutical sciences...

❑ Financial companies & institutions...
❑ Engineering & computer science...

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 What kind of data are collected?

❑Medical & pharmaceutical sciences...

❑ Financial companies & institutions...
❑ Engineering & computer science...
❑ Social & behavioral sciences...

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 What kind of data are collected?

❑Medical & pharmaceutical sciences...

❑ Financial companies & institutions...
❑ Engineering & computer science...
❑ Social & behavioral sciences...
❑ Education & research...

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 What kind of data are collected?

❑Medical & pharmaceutical sciences...

❑ Financial companies & institutions...
❑ Engineering & computer science...
❑ Social & behavioral sciences...
❑ Education & research...
❑ Sport, entertainment & fun...

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 What kind of data are collected?

❑Medical & pharmaceutical sciences...

❑ Financial companies & institutions...
❑ Engineering & computer science...
❑ Social & behavioral sciences...
❑ Education & research...
❑ Sport, entertainment & fun...
❑ etc.

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

How to do it in a proper way?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Syllabus

❑ Introduction & Descriptive Statistics chapter 6

❑ Introduction to Probability chapter 1
❑ Random Variables chapter 2
❑ Discrete and Continuous Probability Distributions chapters 3,4
❑ The Normal Probability Distribution chapter 5
❑ Sampling Distributions, Random Sample chapter 7
❑ Inferences on a Population Mean chapter 8
❑ Comparing Two Population Means chapter 9
❑ Simple Linear Regression and Correlation chapter 12
❑ Inferences on a Population Proportion chapter 10
❑ The Analysis of Variance chapter 11

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

How to do it in a proper way?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

How to do it in a proper way?

Probability ←v
Statistics →s.
❑ Random mechanism → produces random
outcomes;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

How to do it in a proper way?

Probability ←v
Statistics →s.
❑ Random mechanism → produces random outcomes;
❑ A set of random outcomes (results) → drawing
conclusions;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

How to do it in a proper way?

Probability ←v
Statistics →s.
❑ Random mechanism → produces random outcomes;
❑ A set of random outcomes (results) → drawing conclusions;

❑ Probability - theoretical background for a random mechanism;

(describes how the mechanism works - but the principle is unknown)

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

How to do it in a proper way?

Probability ←v
Statistics →s.
❑ Random mechanism → produces random outcomes;
❑ A set of random outcomes (results) → drawing conclusions;

❑ Probability - theoretical background for a random mechanism;

(describes how the mechanism works - but the principle is unknown)
❑ Statistics - uses random outcomes to draw conclusions;
(using statistics we can very precisely describe the mechanism behind)

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Statistics in Real Life...

❑ In probability, we could have aprecise description of the random

mechanism behind whichwouldbe accurate, but it is unknown!

❑ In statistics, we have data (measurements) that are quite often not

precise, but the final conclusions drawn from such data are very accurate!

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Statistics in Real Life...

❑ In probability, we could have aprecise description of the random

mechanism behind whichwouldbe accurate, but it is unknown!

❑ In statistics, we have data (measurements) that are quite often not

precise, but the final conclusions drawn from such data are very accurate!

❑ “I only believe in statistics that I doctored myself.”

Winston S. Churchill (1874 – 1965)

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Population vs. Sample

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Population vs. Sample

Probability Theory
Random Distribution

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Population vs. Sample

Probability Theory
Random Distribution

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Population vs. Sample

Probability Theory Finite Sample

Random Distribution Empirical Distribution

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Population vs. Sample

Probability Theory Finite Sample

Random Distribution Empirical Distribution

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Population vs. Sample

Probability Theory Finite Sample Sample Statistics

Random Distribution Empirical Distribution

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Population vs. Sample

Probability Theory Finite Sample Sample Statistics

Random Distribution Empirical Distribution Statistical Inference

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Different Data types

❑ Categorical variables

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Different Data types

❑ Categorical variables

❑ Numerical variables

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Different Data types

❑ Categorical variables
❑ Nominal categories
❑ categories with no ordering;
What kind of transportation do you use to get to work?
What kind of material do you mostly prefer?

❑ Numerical variables

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Different Data types

❑ Categorical variables
❑ Nominal categories
❑ categories with no ordering;
What kind of transportation do you use to get to work?
What kind of material do you mostly prefer?
❑ Ordinal categories
❑ categories with possible ordering;
What was your most frequent grade last semester?
What energy category does the machine belong to?

❑ Numerical variables

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Different Data types

❑ Categorical variables
❑ Nominal categories
❑ categories with no ordering;
What kind of transportation do you use to get to work?
What kind of material do you mostly prefer?
❑ Ordinal categories
❑ categories with possible ordering;
What was your most frequent grade last semester?
What energy category does the machine belong to?

❑ Numerical variables
❑ Integer values - counts
❑ an apriori assumption of equidistant differences;
How many people visit this museum a day? How
many call a day is addressed to 911?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Different Data types

❑ Categorical variables
❑ Nominal categories
❑ categories with no ordering;
What kind of transportation do you use to get to work?
What kind of material do you mostly prefer?
❑ Ordinal categories
❑ categories with possible ordering;
What was your most frequent grade last semester?
What energy category does the machine belong to?

❑ Numerical variables
❑ Integer values - counts
❑ an apriori assumption of equidistant differences;
How many people visit this museum a day? How
many call a day is addressed to 911?
❑ Real values
❑ any real value is possible...
length, weight, height, temperature, etc.

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Data exploration

❑ What is the nature of data?

❑ What are the limitations of the experiment
behind?

❑ What is the main question of interest?

❑ Is it possible to use data available to answer it?

❑ Is it important to visualize the data?

❑ Howcan one get an insight in the data?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Binary Data
❑ the simplest data type...
❑ different coding possible...
❑ logical:TRUE | FALSE; 1|0; YES|NO;
❑ categorical:A|B; 1|2; HOME|ABROAD;
❑ only afew options on how to represent such data;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Binary Data
❑ the simplest data type...
❑ different coding possible...
❑ logical:TRUE | FALSE; 1|0; YES|NO;
❑ categorical:A|B; 1|2; HOME|ABROAD;
❑ only afew options on how to represent such data;

Summary
(table):

TRUE
41
FALSE
59

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Binary Data
❑ the simplest data type...
❑ different coding possible...
❑ logical:TRUE | FALSE; 1|0; YES|NO;
❑ categorical:A|B; 1|2; HOME|ABROAD;
❑ only afew options on how to represent such data;

Summary Frequency
(table): summary:

TRUE
TRUE: 41.00 %
41
FALSE
59

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Binary Data
❑ the simplest data type...
❑ different coding possible...
❑ logical:TRUE | FALSE; 1|0; YES|NO;
❑ categorical:A|B; 1|2; HOME|ABROAD;
❑ only afew options on how to represent such data;

Summary Frequency Graphical

(table): summary: view:

TRUE
TRUE: 41.00 %
41
0 10 20 3 0 40 50
FALSE FALSE TRUE

59

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Nominal categories...
❑ Machine Breakdowns: what is a machine breakdown cause?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Nominal categories...
❑ Machine Breakdowns: what is a machine breakdown cause?
elektrical | mechanical | misuse

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Nominal categories...
❑ Machine Breakdowns: what is a machine breakdown cause?
elektrical | mechanical | misuse
❑ Data: a sequence of words’electrical’, ’mechanical’or’misuse’;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Nominal categories...
❑ Machine Breakdowns: what is a machine breakdown cause?
elektrical | mechanical | misuse
❑ Data: a sequence of words’electrical’, ’mechanical’or’misuse’;

Summary
(table):

Electrical 9
Mechanical 24
Misuse 13

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Nominal categories...
❑ Machine Breakdowns: what is a machine breakdown cause?
elektrical | mechanical | misuse
❑ Data: a sequence of words’electrical’, ’mechanical’or’misuse’;

Summary Frequency
(table): summary:

Electrical 9 Electrical 19.57 %

Mechanical 24 Mechanical 52.17 %
Misuse 13 Misuse 28.26 %

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Nominal categories...
❑ Machine Breakdowns: what is a machine breakdown cause?
elektrical | mechanical | misuse
❑ Data: a sequence of words’electrical’, ’mechanical’or’misuse’;

Summary Frequency Graphical

(table): summary: view:

Electrical 9 Electrical 19.57 %

Mechanical 24 Mechanical 52.17 %

0 5 10 1 5 2 0
Misuse 13 Misuse 28.26 %
electrical mechanical misuse

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Nominal categories...
❑ Machine Breakdowns: what is a machine breakdown cause?
elektrical | mechanical | misuse
❑ Data: a sequence of words’electrical’, ’mechanical’or’misuse’;

Summary Frequency Graphical

(table): summary: view:

Electrical 9 Electrical 19.57 %

Mechanical 24 Mechanical 52.17 %
Misuse 13 Misuse 28.26 %

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?
0 times | once | two times and more

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?
0 times | once | two times and more
❑ Data: a sequence of values0,1and2;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?
0 times | once | two times and more
❑ Data: a sequence of values0,1and2;

Summary
(table):

Zero 54
Once 40
≥2 6

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?
0 times | once | two times and more
❑ Data: a sequence of values0,1and2;

Summary Frequency
(table): summary:

Zero 54 Zero 54 %
Once 40 Once 40 %
≥2 6 ≥2 6%

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?
0 times | once | two times and more
❑ Data: a sequence of values0,1and2;

Summary Frequency Graphical

(table): summary: view:

Zero 54 Zero 54 %
Once 40 Once 40 %

50
≥2 6 ≥2 6%

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 40
>= 2 once zero

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?
0 times | once | two times and more
❑ Data: a sequence of values0,1and2;

Summary Frequency Graphical

(table): summary: view:

Zero 54 Zero 54 %
Once 40 Once 40 %
≥2 6 ≥2 6%

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Categorical Data
❑ Ordinal categories...
❑ Number of Breakdowns: How many times did a machine break down?
0 times | once | two times and more
❑ Data: a sequence of values0,1and2;

Summary Frequency Graphical

(table): summary: view:

Zero 54 Zero 54 %
Once 40 Once 40 %
≥2 6 ≥2 6%

❑ What is the main difference between nominal and ordinal categories?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 5

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 10

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 30

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 100

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 100
❑ Data: mostly a sequence of integer values...

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 100
❑ Data: mostly a sequence of integer values...
15
10
table(rr)

5
0

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 100
❑ Data: mostly a sequence of integer values...
15

0.08
table(rr)

De ns i ty

0 . 00 0. 0 2 0 .0 4 0 . 06
10
5
0

1 6 5 1 70 17 5 1 8 0 1 8 5 19 0 1 95

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 Hei g ht o f m a l e s

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 100
❑ Data: mostly a sequence of integer values... 100
10
15
table(rr)

F re q u e n c y

150
50
5

0
0

1 6 5 1 70 17 5 1 8 0 1 8 5 19 0 1 95

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 Hei g ht o f m a l e s

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Integer values - counts...
❑ How many hours cana machine work until it breaks down?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many people a day will use the lift?
0, 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
❑ How many passengers is in a driving car?
1, 2, 3, etc. ≤ 100
❑ Data: mostly a sequence of integer values...
15

150
10

F re q u e n c y
table(rr)

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
50
5

100
0
0

1 6 5 1 70 17 5 1 8 0 1 8 5 19 0 1 95

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 Hei g ht o f m a l e s

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data

❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data

❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data

❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data

❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;
0.10

0.10
0.08

0.08
0.06
Density

Density

0.04 0.06
0.04
0.02

0.02
0.00

0.00

165 170 175 180 185 190 195 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

Height of males Height of females

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;

0.10


195




0.08
190
185

Density

0.04 0.06
180
175
170

0.00 0.02




155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

Height of females

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;

 
 
195

 


185
190

180
185

175
180

170
175

165
170

160


 

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;
0.10




0.08

175 180 185

0.06
Density

170
0.04

160 165


0.00 0.02

165 170 175 180 185 190 195

Height of males

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;
0.10

0.10
0.08

0.08
0.06
Density

Density

0.04 0.06
0.04
0.02

0.02
0.00

0.00

165 170 175 180 185 190 195 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

Height of males Height of females

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;
0.10

0.10
0.08

0.08
0.06
Density

Density

0.04 0.06
0.04
0.02

0.02
0.00

0.00

165 170 175 180 185 190 195 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

Height of males Height of females

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Numerical Data
❑ Real values...
❑ We could improve a precision on the previous example...
data → positive real values...
❑ How long cana machine work until it breaks down?
❑ Data: a sequence of real valued observations...
❑ infinitely many different outcomes to be considered;
❑ the most common data presentation using
histograms;
0.10

0.10
0.08

0.08
0.06
Density

Density

0.04 0.06
0.04
0.02

0.02
0.00

0.00

165 170 175 180 185 190 195 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190

Height of males Height of females

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Histogram...
0.08
0.06
Density

0.04
0.02
0.00

165 170 175 180 185 190 195

Height of males

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Histogram...
150
100
Frequency

50
0

165 170 175 180 185 190 195

Height of males

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Histogram...
300
Frequency

200
100
0

165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200

Height of males

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Histogram...
40
30
Frequency

20
10
0

170 175 180 185 190 195

Height of males

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Histogram...
15
10
Frequency

5
0

170 175 180 185 190 195

Height of males

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STAT 235 - Introduction

Boxplot figure...

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Some nice properties

What can be directly observed from histogram (boxplot)?

❑ symmetric/non-symmetric data distribution;

❑ unimodal or multimodal data distribution;
❑ skewness of data distribution;
❑ indications of outlying observations;
❑ ...

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Some nice properties

What can be directly observed from histogram (boxplot)?

❑ symmetric/non-symmetric data distribution;

❑ unimodal or multimodal data distribution;
❑ skewness of data distribution;
❑ indications of outlying observations;
❑ ...

It is not so much important now when we only focus on data exploration

part however, it will become really crucial when considering more
sophisticated statistical modeling approaches.

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Data sample reliability

❑ How reliable such data samples are?

❑ Could we expect more reliability and confidence if more data is available?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Data sample reliability

❑ How reliable such data samples are?

❑ Could we expect more reliability and confidence if more data is available?

❑ Is there a way to numerically express such reliability, confidence?

❑ What should be a sufficient number of observation?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Data sample reliability

❑ How reliable such data samples are?

❑ Could we expect more reliability and confidence if more data is available?

❑ Is there a way to numerically express such reliability, confidence?

❑ What should be a sufficient number of observation?

❑ The more data we obtain the more we have to pay for...

❑ How to find a reasonable balance?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

From counts to ordinal categories

❑ How long does the machine work until it breaks down?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

From counts to ordinal categories

❑ How long does the machine work until it breaks down?
❑ more that 15 hours ⇒ category A

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

From counts to ordinal categories

❑ How long does the machine work until it breaks down?
❑ more that 15 hours ⇒ category A
❑ more that 10 & less than 15 hours ⇒ category B

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

From counts to ordinal categories

❑ How long does the machine work until it breaks down?
❑ more that 15 hours ⇒ category A
❑ more that 10 & less than 15 hours ⇒ category B
❑ more that 5 & less than 10 hours ⇒ category C

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

From counts to ordinal categories

❑ How long does the machine work until it breaks down?
❑ more that 15 hours ⇒ category A
❑ more that 10 & less than 15 hours ⇒ category B
❑ more that 5 & less than 10 hours ⇒ category C
❑ less than 5 hours ⇒ category D

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

From counts to ordinal categories

❑ How long does the machine work until it breaks down?
❑ more that 15 hours ⇒ category A
❑ more that 10 & less than 15 hours ⇒ category B
❑ more that 5 & less than 10 hours ⇒ category C
❑ less than 5 hours ⇒ category D

❑ What is the data sample now?

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

From counts to ordinal categories

❑ How long does the machine work until it breaks down?
❑ more that 15 hours ⇒ category A
❑ more that 10 & less than 15 hours ⇒ category B
❑ more that 5 & less than 10 hours ⇒ category C
❑ less than 5 hours ⇒ category D

❑ What is the data sample now?

10 20 30 40 50
0

category A category B category C category D

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Higher dimensional data

❑ two categorical variables;

❑ one categorical and the other numerical variable;
❑ two numerical (continuous) variables;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Higher dimensional data

❑ two categorical variables;

❑ one categorical and the other numerical variable;
❑ two numerical (continuous) variables;

❑ more dimensional data ⇒ it gets even difficult to plot;

❑ multivariate statistical methods were proposed to be used
instead;

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Titanic survivals
Sex Sex
C lass Male C lass Male
1st
Female 0 0 1st
Female 5 1
2nd 0 0 2nd 11 13
3rd 35 17 3rd 13 14
Crew 0 0 Crew 0 0

, , Age = C h i l d , Survived = No , , Age = C h i l d , Survived = Yes

Sex Sex
C lass Male C lass Male Female
1st
Female 118 4 1st 57
2nd 154 13 2nd 14140 80
3rd 387 89 3rd 75 76
Crew 670 3 Crew 192 20

, , Age = A d u l t , Survived = No , , Age = A d u l t , Survived = Yes

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 STAT 235 - Introduction

Car Breaking Distance

120


100

 
80








dist

60


 
 



 

40

 
 
 
  
 
   


20

 
 


 



0

5 10 15 20 25

speed

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STAT 235 - Introduction

Orange Trees

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 Sampling procedure

From Population to its Sample

population =⇒ population sample =⇒ statistical inference

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 Sampling procedure

From Population to its Sample

population =⇒ population sample =⇒ statistical inference

Sampling procedure:
❑ ideally we would like to obtain arandom
sample;

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 Sampling procedure

From Population to its Sample

population =⇒ population sample =⇒ statistical inference

Sampling procedure:
❑ ideally we would like to obtain arandom sample;
❑ random sample → independent and identically distributed
observations;

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Sample Statistics

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 Sample Statistics

Two different worlds

...

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average ƒ= mean

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average ƒ= mean

❑ arithmetic average of all given observations;

Σ n

{x1, x2, . . . , xn
i= 1
❑notation: x n = n
xi
, wherethe actual observations are

};

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average ƒ= mean

❑ arithmetic average of all given observations;

Σ n

{x1, x2, . . . , xn
i= 1
❑notation: x n = n
xi
, wherethe actual observations are
❑ it is a “middle value” with respect tovalues and their distribution;
};

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average ƒ= mean

❑ arithmetic average of all given observations;

Σ n

{x1, x2, . . . , xn
i= 1
❑notation: x n = n
xi
, wherethe actual observations are
❑ it is a “middle value” with respect tovalues and their distribution;
};

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average ƒ= mean

❑ arithmetic average of all given observations;

Σ n

{x1, x2, . . . , xn
i= 1
❑notation: x n = n
xi
, wherethe actual observations are
❑ it is a “middle value” with respect tovalues and their distribution;
};

❑ Advantage:it is sensitive with respect to outlying observations;

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average ƒ= mean

❑ arithmetic average of all given observations;

Σ n

{x1, x2, . . . , xn
i= 1
❑notation: x n = n
xi
, wherethe actual observations are
❑ it is a “middle value” with respect tovalues and their distribution;
};

❑ Advantage:it is sensitive with respect to outlying observations;

❑ Disadvantage:it issensitive with respect to outlying observations;

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Mean

❑ sample mean ≡ average ƒ= mean

❑ arithmetic average of all given observations;

Σ n

{x1, x2, . . . , xn
i= 1
❑notation: x n = n
xi
, wherethe actual observations are
❑ it is a “middle value” with respect tovalues and their distribution;
};

❑ Advantage:it is sensitive with respect to outlying observations;

❑ Disadvantage:it issensitive with respect to outlying observations;

❑ Some other proposals: sample trimmed mean, weighted mean, etc.;

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Median

❑ middle observation from all ordered observations;

❑ x˜n= x( n+1 ) for n even and x˜n= [x(n/2) + x( n+1 )]/2 for n odd;
2 2

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Median

❑ middle observation from all ordered observations;

❑ x˜n= x( n+1 ) for n even and x˜n= [x(n/2) + x( n+1 )]/2 for n odd;
2 2

❑ it is a “middle value” with respect to

givenvaluesthemselves;

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Median

❑ middle observation from all ordered observations;

❑ x˜n= x( n+1 ) for n even and x˜n= [x(n/2) + x( n+1 )]/2 for n odd;
2 2

❑ it is a “middle value” with respect to

givenvaluesthemselves;

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Median

❑ middle observation from all ordered observations;

❑ x˜n= x( n+1 ) for n even and x˜n= [x(n/2) + x( n+1 )]/2 for n odd;
2 2

❑ it is a “middle value” with respect to

givenvaluesthemselves;

❑ Advantage:it is not sensitive with respect to observation

values;

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Median

❑ middle observation from all ordered observations;

❑ x˜n= x( n+1 ) for n even and x˜n= [x(n/2) + x( n+1 )]/2 for n odd;
2 2

❑ it is a “middle value” with respect to givenvaluesthemselves;

❑ Advantage:it is not sensitive with respect to observation values;

❑ Disadvantage:it is not sensitive with respect to observations
values;

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 Sample Statistics

Sample Median

❑ middle observation from all ordered observations;

❑ x˜n= x( n+1 ) for n even and x˜n= [x(n/2) + x( n+1 )]/2 for n odd;
2 2

❑ it is a “middle value” with respect to givenvaluesthemselves;

❑ Advantage:it is not sensitive with respect to observation values;

❑ Disadvantage:it is not sensitive with respect to observations
values;

❑ Some other proposals as well ...;

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 Sample Statistics

Some other sample characteristics

❑ sample mode (for categorical variables mostly);

What is the relation between sample mean, median and mode?
❑ sample variance & sample standard error;
mostly it is difficult to imagine → sample range used “instead”
❑ sample quantiles (quartiles, percentiles, etc.);
some of them are more important than others...
❑ coefficient of variation;
spread of data relative to its middle value

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 Sample Statistics

To be continued...

❑ Probability, probability concepts;

❑ Random events, combination of events;
❑ Conditional probability;
❑ Independence principle;
❑ Law of Total Probability;
❑ Bayes Theorem in Probability;

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