Problem Statement:

Design control system to reduce the wheel skidding

ANTI-LOCK
BRAKES
ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
 ABS, (Anti-Lock brake system)
 ABS allows the driver to maintain steering
control of the vehicle while in hard braking
situations .
 2. Motivation for ABS

 Under hard braking, an ideal braking system

should:

 provide the shortest stopping distances on

all surfaces

 maintain vehicle stability and steerability

ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
 Computerized ABS is
designed to keep the
wheels from locking
as the brakes are
applied.
 A locked wheel
provides very little or
no directional control.
3. History of ABS

 1936: German company Bosch is awarded a patent for

an “Apparatus for preventing lock-braking of wheels
in a motor vehicle”.
 1936-: Bosch and Mercedes-Benz partner - R&D into ABS.
 1972: WABCO partners with Mercedes-Benz developing first
ABS for trucks.
 1978: First production-line installation of ABS into Mercedes
and BMW vehicles.
 1981: 100,000 Bosch ABS installed.
 1985: First ABS installed on US vehicles.
 2003: 100M Bosch ABS installed
ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
 The following slides show the common
ABS components.
 Some components are part of both the
conventional and ABS system.
 ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
Master
Cylinder
Assembly

Pressure
Valve Dump/Vent Valve Speed
Sensor

Anti Lock
Anti-Lock
Brake Module

12 V
abs2010_revised.flv
Video - Anti-lock brake system animation - Detroit Automotive Examiner.com.mp4
ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
 Major components of the anti-lock brake
system consist of a
 Brake control module,
 Solenoid valve assembly,
 Speed sensor's
 Wiring, and the amber ABS brake warning
light.
ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
 Solenoid Valve Assembly:
Is a pair of valves that can:
A. Increase pressure
B. Hold pressure steady
C. Decrease pressure
ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
 Wheel speed Sensor
ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
 Wheel speed Sensor

Teeth on the sensor ring rotate past

the magnetic sensor, causing a
reversal of the magnetic field polarity,
resulting in a signal with frequency
related to the angular velocity of the
axle.
Types of Wheel Speed Sensors

 There are two types

 Active wheel speed sensor
 Passive wheel speed sensor
ABS COMPONENTS
Wheel Speed Sensors

The sensor pickup has a magnetic

core surrounded by coil windings.

As the wheel turns,

teeth on the sensor ring
Toothed move through the
Ring
pickup’s magnetic field.
ABS COMPONENTS
Wheel Speed Sensor - Operation

The control module monitors

wheel speed by counting
pulses from each wheel
speed sensor.

The number of voltage

pulses per second
induced in the pickup
changes frequency.

The higher the frequency,

the faster the wheel is turning.

Signal frequency is proportional to wheel speed.

Automotive Technology, Fourth Edition © 2011 Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

James Halderman Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
 When the wheel is rolling (no applied brakes),

 When brake is applied force acts as a torque Tb in opposition to the wheel

rotation

 The actual force that decelerates the car is shown as Fb.

 The lateral force that maintains directional control of the car is shown as FL .
ABS brake circuit
Traction Control Systems

An Introduction
Traction Control Systems
 The definition of a “Traction Control System”
for automotive use is any mechanical or other
system designed to maximize the traction of
the drive wheels to propel an automobile,
especially under wet, icy or other conditions
which provide either a low or uneven
coefficient of friction.
Traction Control Systems.

 That means anything specifically

designed to improve traction when the
weather etc. gets nasty.
 Both mechanical and electronically
controlled systems are available.
Traction Control Systems
 Mechanical Methods
 Limited Slip Differentials – Redirect torque from the
spinning wheel to the wheel with the best available
traction. (IE. Torsen, Quaife)
 Advantages:
 Work with no driver intervention.
 Sends power to the tire with the most traction.
 Retains differential action in turns.
 Disadvantages:
 More weight.
 Additional cost to build.
 Often require special lubricants.
Traction Control Systems
 Mechanical Methods
 Locking Differentials – Lock the differential forcing
the spinning wheel to turn at the same rate as the
non-spinning wheel. (ie. Positrak, Detroit Locker)
 Advantages:
 Lock both drive wheels making both wheels turn at the same
rate.
 Disadvantages:
 Locking both wheels on an axle eliminates the “differential
action” in turns and may cause a loss of directional stability if
both wheels are forced to spin.
 Makes steering extremely difficult on front wheel drive cars (or
the front axle of a 4 wheel drive vehicle.
 More expensive to produce and service.
Traction control Systems
Traction Control Systems
 Electronic Traction Control Systems:
 Operate by doing one or both of the following functions:
 Reduce engine power when the drive wheels slip.
 Apply braking force to the slipping wheel which re-directs torque
to the opposite wheel.
 Normally allow about 10% wheel slippage before operation.
 Advantages
 May utilize many of the same components as the Anti-Lock
Braking System (ABS) and apply braking force to the slipping
wheel which redirects torque to the slower wheel. Some may
also control engine operation.
 Can be used with 4 wheel drive systems as well as 2 wheel
drive.
Traction Control Systems

 Low Speed Only Systems:

 Generally use only the braking system to
redirect power to the wheels.
 Normally operate at less than 25 mph.
Traction Control Systems

 Higher speed systems:

 May also include some kind of engine
control to reduce power when wheel
slippage is encountered.
 Stop fuel flow to the injectors.
 Retard the throttle.

 Change ignition timing.

Traction Control Systems

 Electronic Traction Control Systems:.

 Disadvantages
 May cause increased wear on brake
components.
 May inhibit performance driving by eliminating all

wheel slip and/or intervening at inappropriate

Active Traction Control.flv
times. Mazda Traction Control System
TCS..flv
Toyota Traction Control System
(TRC).flv
TCS and ESP brake circuit configuration

Electronic Stability Program

An Introduction
Electronic Stability Program

An Introduction
Braking done by ESP or TCS

Electronic Stability Program

An Introduction
Brake pressure release

Electronic Stability Program

An Introduction
Electronic Stability Program

An Introduction
Electronic Stability Program

Also known as
ESC,DSC,VSC,AdvanceTrac
Traction Control
Electronic Systems
Stability Program
Electronic Stability Program
Traction Control Systems
Electronic Stability Program
Traction Control Systems
Traction Control Systems
Topic 4 Lesson 2

Vehicle Control
Actual Path (Understeer)
Exit

Intended Path Inertia

Apex

Entry

SERA Conference 2007

Cornering
 Intended Path
Exit Inertia
Actual Path (Oversteer)

Apex

Entry

Cornering
Traction Control Systems

When the driver is turning too sharply when making

a turn or rounding a curve which can produce a
traction loss.
Traction Control Systems
Traction Control Systems
Working principle of ESP
Electronic Stability Program

Bosch ESP 1.flv

Electronic Stability Program.mp4
Electronic Stability Program (ESP) side-by-side comparison.flv
ESP -- Electronic Stability Program.flv
Fifth Gear ABS, TC, ESP Full version.flv
ESP control de estabilidad electronic stability control.flv
How Effective is Stability Control.flv
Electronic Stability Program

What are the Sensors used in ESP ?

Electronic Stability Program

 Wheel speed Sensor

 Steering Angle Sensor
 Yaw rate Sensors
 Lateral Acceleration Sensor
 Longitudinal Acceleration Sensor
 Pressure Sensor
 Vacuum Sensor
Design control system to maintain constant speed
Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC)
 What is Cruise Control ?

Cruise control is a system that automatically

controls the speed of a motor vehicle. 

The system takes over the throttle of the car

to maintain a steady speed as set by the
driver.

Cruise control is an invaluable feature on

American cars.

Without cruise control, long road trips would

be more tiring, for the driver at least, and
 Drawbacks of Cruise
Control
 The main problem regarding the normal
Cruise Control technology is that it is not
aware of other vehicles movement

 The driver must be always aware. Hence,

possibility of mistakes

 Possibility of collision with the leading car

if not manually slowed down
 Proposed Solution
 Introduce Adaptive Cruise Control for
longitudinal control of the vehicle

 Speed would be automatically adjusted for

safe inter-distance

 Once safe inter-distance is reached, the

speed would return to the desired speed set
by the driver
 Why ACC?
In each
year

15000 traffic accident

200 people are killed and 20000
people injured

Cost HKSAR about 30 million dollars

 Why ACC?

- 95% accident is due by driver error

- What kinds of driver errors ?

 Situation
 Most problem are
too close and wrong
turn

 How to solve it ?

Adaptive Cruise Control System

Cruise Control System

 Input: buttons on
the steering wheel,
brake, clutch, gas
pedal and feedback
signal
 Processor
 Sensor
 Output: the throttle
position
 Background
 First laser-based system – Toyota’s
Progress, a compact luxury sedan, in
1998
 First radar-based system – Nissan’s
Cima 41LV-2, a luxury sedan
 First American ACC model – Lexus’
LS 430, in 2000
 How ACC is operated in
car
Cruise ? pictured below can accelerate or
control
decelerate the car by 1 mph with the tap of a button

 Hitting the on button

tell the ECU to switch
on ACC

Hitting off butten will

turn off ACC

The set/accel button
tells the car to
maintain the speed
you are currently
driving. If you hit the
set button at 45 mph,
the car will maintain
your speed at 45 mph
How ACC is operated in
car ?   Holding
set/accel
down the
button will
make the car
accelerate; and on this
car, tapping it once
will make the car go 1
mph faster

Holding down the

coast button will
cause the car to
decelerate, just as if
you took your foot
completely off the gas.
On this car, tapping
the coast button once
will cause the car to
slow down by 1 mph.

The brake pedal and

clutch pedal each
Flow chart of ACC working
 Function
 Preset and maintain the car speed
 Measure the distance to the preceding car
and the relative speed
 Adjust the car speed accordingly
 Maximum deceleration = 3.5m/s^2
 Two types of ACC
 Radar-Based System
– Three overlapping radar-beams (76-
77kHz)
-- Detects moving object up to 120 m
– work in poor weather conditions
 Laser-Based System (lidar)

– less expensive and easier to package

How ACC works?
System Configuration of
ACC
Introduction to
ACC

• Extension of Cruise Control.

• Operates either in
• Distance Control state
• Speed Control state
 Sensors used in
ACC

 Wheel Speed Sensors

 Throttle position Sensor
 Brake pressure Sensor
 Radar/lidar Sensor
PID controllers
The proportional term produces an output value that is proportional to the
current error value.

The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of
the error and the duration of the error

You can think of derivative control as predicting the error in future, based on the
current slope of the error.

The derivative control mode gives a controller additional control action when the
error changes consistently.
Electronic suspension system
Purpose
To isolate the car body motion as much as possible from wheel motion due to rough
road input.

Performance measures are ride and handling.

Ride refers to the motion of the car body in response to road bumps or irregularities.

Handling refers to how well the car body responds to dynamic vehicle motion such as
cornering or hard braking.

Ride is improved by lowering the shock absorber damping, whereas handling is

improved by increasing this damping.

In traditional suspension design, the damping parameter is fixed and is chosen to
achieve a compromise between ride and handling
 In electronically controlled suspension systems, this damping can be varied
depending on driving conditions and road roughness characteristics.

 That is, the suspension system adapts to inputs to maintain the best possible ride
subject to handling constraints that are associated with safety.

 There are two major classes of electronic suspension control systems:

 active and semiactive.

 The semiactive suspension system is purely dissipative (i.e., power is absorbed by

the shock absorber under control of a microcontroller).

 In this system, the shock absorber damping is regulated to absorb the power of the
wheel motion in accordance with the driving conditions.

 In an active suspension system, power is added to the suspension system via a

hydraulic or pneumatic power source
 The primary purpose of the semiactive suspension system is to provide

A good ride for as much of the time as possible without sacrificing handling.

Good ride is achieved if the car’s body is isolated as much as possible from the road.

 A semiactive suspension controls the shock absorber damping to achieve the best
possible ride.

suspension system has another major function. It must also dynamically maintain the
tire normal force as the unsprung mass (wheel assembly) travels up and down due to
road roughness
For low damping, the unsprung mass moves relatively freely due to road input while
the sprung mass motion remains relatively low.

As shown in graph,this low damping results in relatively high variation in normal force,
particularly near the two peak frequencies.

That is, low damping results in relatively poor handling characteristics

 Another major input to the vehicle that affects handling is steering input that causes
maneuvers parallel to the road surface (e.g., cornering). Whenever the car is
executing such maneuvers, there is a lateral acceleration.

 This acceleration acting through the center of gravity causes the vehicle to roll in a
direction opposite to the maneuver.

 Car handling generally improves if the amount of roll for any given maneuver is
reduced. The rolling rate for a given car and maneuver is improved if spring rate and
shock absorber damping are increased.

 Although the semiactive control system regulates only the damping, handling is
improved by increasing this damping as lateral acceleration increases.
 The earliest active or semiactive suspension systems employed variable aperture.

 One scheme for achieving variable damping is to switch between two aperture sizes
using a solenoid.

 Another scheme varies aperture size continuously with a motor-driven mechanism.

Variable Damping Via Variable Strut Fluid Viscosity

The fluid for such a system consists of a synthetic hydrocarbon with suspended iron
particles.

An electromagnet is positioned such that a magnetic field is created whose strength

is proportional to current through the coil.

This magnetic field passes through the MR fluid.

In the absence of the magnetic field, the iron particles are randomly distributed and
the MR fluid has relatively low viscosity corresponding to low damping.

As the magnetic field is increased from zero, the iron particles begin to align with
the field, and the viscosity increases in proportion to the strength of the field.

damping of the associated shock absorber/strut varies continuously with the

electromagnet coil current.
 Variable Spring Rate

suspension system are influenced by the springs as well as the shock absorber
damping.

electronically controlled suspension, are also equipped with pneumatic springs as a

replacement for steel springs.

A pneumatic spring consists of a rubber bladder mounted in an assembly and filled

with air under pressure. This mechanism is commonly called an air suspension
system.

The spring rate for such pneumatic springs is proportional to the pressure in the
bladder.
A motor-driven pump is provided that varies the pressure in the bladder, yielding a
variable spring rate suspension.

In conjunction with a suitable control system, the pneumatic springs can

automatically adjust the vehicle height to accommodate various vehicle loadings.
ELECTRONIC STEERING CONTROL
 There are several motor control approaches to electrically assist or directly control
power steering.

 Systems such as electric power-assisted steering (EPAS) or electric hydraulic power

steering (EHPS) work with the vehicle's hydraulic systems.

 Newer electric or electronic power steering (EPS) systems eliminate the hydraulic
portion

 Either EPAS or EPS systems are required instead of belt-driven hydraulic power
steering (HPS) systems on hybrid vehicles where the engine is off at idle.
 According to a Frost & Sullivan report , EPS systems to almost completely overtake
HPS systems by 2020 in Japan.

 In Europe, where fuel economy is also important to drivers, the acceptance and
adoption rate of EPS and EPAS is also quite high with some estimates showing as
high as 50% of new vehicles equipped with these systems.

 TRW projects that by 2010, 50% of cars produced worldwide will incorporate some
form of electrically assisted steering system.

 The accuracy of these projections depends on the added functionality that EPS
provides to drivers

 EPS provides fuel savings as high as 0.2 to 0.3 liters per 100 kilometers compared to
HPS systems and EPS has a higher capability for integration
system consists of a rack-and-pinion steering gear with an electric motor
installed concentrically around the rack.

The motor transmits its power through a recirculating ball drive mechanism to
push the rack right or left.
 A "steering sensor" is located on the input shaft where it enters the gearbox
housing.

 The steering sensor is actually two sensors in one: a "torque sensor" that
converts steering torque input and its direction into voltage signals, and a
"rotation sensor" that converts the rotation speed and direction into voltage
signals.

 An "interface" circuit that shares the same housing converts the signals from
the torque sensor and rotation sensor into signals the control electronics can
process.
 Inputs from the steering sensor are digested by a microprocessor control
unit that also monitors input from the vehicle's speed sensor.

 The sensor inputs are then compared to determine how much power assist
is required according to a preprogrammed "force map" in the control unit's
memory.

 The control unit then sends out the appropriate command to the "power unit"
which then supplies the electric motor with current.

 The motor pushes the rack to the right or left depending on which way the
voltage flows (reversing the current reverses the direction the motor spins).
Increasing the current to the motor increases the amount of power assist.
 The system has three operating modes: a "normal" control mode in which
left or right power assist is provided in response to input from the steering
torque and rotation sensor's inputs;

 a "return" control mode which is used to assist steering return after

completing a turn;

 and a "damper" control mode that changes with vehicle speed to improve
road feel and dampen kickback
If the steering wheel is turned and held in the full-lock position and steering
assist reaches a maximum, the control unit reduces current to the electric
motor to prevent an overload situation that might damage the motor.

The control unit is also designed to protect the motor against voltage surges
from a faulty alternator or charging problem
 electronic steering control unit is capable of self-diagnosing faults by monitoring the
system's inputs and outputs, and the driving current of the electric motor.

 If a problem occurs, the control unit turns the system off by actuating a fail-safe relay
in the power unit. This eliminates all power assist, causing the system to revert back
to manual steering.

 A dash EPS warning light is also illuminated to alert the driver. To diagnose the
problem, a technician jumps the terminals on the service check connector and reads
out the trouble codes
• What is “Automotive Infotainment”
– The system delivering information (bidirectional) and entertainment
content to the vehicle occupants
• Broadcast Radio (AM, FM, Digital Radio)
• Audio/Video Playback (CD/DVD, USB, iPod, Bluetooth Streaming)
• Driver Convenience and Safety (hands-free calling, 911 Assist in USA)
• Navigation (position and directions, traffic reports)
• Emerging and Future Extensions
– Mobile TV, Mobile broadband internet
– Car-Roadway Communication, Pay-per-mile tolls, position aware driver
assist

97
What is In-Vehicle Infotainment (IVI) system?

For the development of automotive industry and transportation, In-Vehicle Infotainment

(IVI) system has been a kind of computer application delivering real-time traffic
information and entertainment services, such as navigation, video-audio streaming
and networked computing within road-vehicles. New challenge exists in the
development of the whole IT and automotive industries; in particular, tier-one vendors
are increasingly viewing IVI systems as a key differentiator in their products.
Vehicle Navigation System
 Determination of the position of the vehicle purely based on the GPS.

 The navigation system compares the determined position with a digital map.

 Uses the map to calculate the route to the specified destination.

 Either there can be permanently installed navigation device or portable one.

 Official name of GPS is NAVigational Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning
System (NAVSTAR GPS)

 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is a form of Global Navigation Satellite System

(GNSS)

 First developed by the United States Department of Defense

 Consists of two dozen GPS satellites in medium Earth orbit (The region of space
between 2000km and 35,786 km)

 An automotive navigation system is a satellite navigation system designed for use in

automobiles.
 A GPS receiver can tell its own position by using the position data of itself,
and compares that data with 3 or more GPS satellites.

 To get the distance to each satellite, the GPS transmits a signal to each
satellite.
 The signal travels at a known speed.
 The system measures the time delay between the signal transmission
and signal reception of the GPS signal.
 The signals carry information about the satellite’s location.
 Determines the position of, and distance to, at least three satellites, to
reduce error.
 The receiver computes position using trilateration.

 Trilateration

trilateration is the process of determining absolute or relative locations of points by

measurement of distances, using the geometry of circles
GPS Functionality
GPS systems are made up of 3 segments
Space Segment (SS)
Control Segment (CS)
User Segment (US)
Functions of Navigation System

Position determination

Tune to greatest Accuracy

Travel direction determination

Dead reckoning

Map matching

Destination entry

Route computation

Route guidance
Position determination

 Signals from different satellites arrive at the vehicle at different

times on account of the different propagation time.

 The position of the receiver is calculated using the trilateration

process.

 When signals from at least three satellites arrive navigation

device calculates its own geographical position in two
dimensions (terrestrial longitude and latitude)

 When signals from at least four satellites arrive navigation

device calculates 3 dimensional position calculation

Accuracy

The achievable accuracy is dependent on the position of the satellite that

Can be received relative to the vehicle.

The achievable accuracy is in the plane approximately 3-5m and

height 10-20m

Travel direction determination

The direction of travel is quickly sensed from the differences in the receive
Frequency of satellites which are brought by about the Doppler effect.

When car drives towards a satellite, GPS receiver of the navigation device
Sees a higher frequency than the transmit frequency.

It receives a lower frequency from satellites behind. This is sufficient to

Determine the direction.
Dead reckoning

Dead reckoning ensures position determination even if no GPS signals can be

received e.g tunnels.

It adds cyclically recoded distance elements vectorially by magnitude and direction

The speedometer signal transmitted over CAN bus is used to measure the
distance.

Changes in the direction are recorded by the yaw rate sensor.

In this way , the direction of travel is determined starting out from an absolute
direction which was calculated with GPS signals receive last via doppler effect.
Map Matching

The procedure known as map matching continuously compares

the located position with route on the digital map.

In this way the exact vehicle position can also be shown on the
map

Destination entry

The system allows the user to enter the destination via navigation
device panel with buttons or via touch screen or voice input.
Route computation

Standard computing:
Starting from the current location , the navigation system
calculates a route leading to the entered destination.

System can provide with multiple route options for the specified
destination based on
driving time
driving distance
estimated fuel consumption
avoiding interstates/expressways….etc
Route computation

Dynamic computing:

Many radio stations transmit traffic messages not only as spoken text, but also in
encoded form.

The ALERT-C standard for Traffic Message Channel(TMC) is provided for this purpose.

The message contains, the location of a hold up and its extent.

A navigation system can receive such an encoded message and determine whether a
hold up is situated on a planned route.

Then new route is computed bypassing the holdup.

Route guidance

Route guidance is performed by comparing the present vehicle

position with computed route.

Route recommendations are mainly reproduced acoustically(voice

output)
Space Segment
GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of
20,200 km and with a period of 12 hours.
Powered by solar cells, the satellites continuously
orient themselves to point their solar panels toward
the sun and their antenna toward the earth.
Orbital planes are centered on the Earth
Each planes has about 55° tilt relative to Earth's
equator in order to cover the polar regions.
Space Segment (Continued)
Each satellite makes two complete orbits each sidereal
day.
Sidereal - Time it takes for the Earth to turn 360 degrees
in its rotation
It passes over the same location on Earth once each
day.
Orbits are designed so that at the very least, six
satellites are always within line of sight from any
location on the planet.
Space Segment (Continued)
There are currently 30 actively broadcasting satellites
in the GPS constellation.
Redundancy is used by the additional satellites to
improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations.
A non-uniform arrangement improves the reliability
and availability of the system over that of a uniform
system, when multiple satellites fail
This is possible due to the number of satellites in the
air today
Control Segment
The CS consists of 3 entities:
Master Control System
Monitor Stations
Ground Antennas
Master Control Station
The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force
Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, is responsible for
overall management of the remote monitoring and
transmission sites.
GPS ephemeris is the tabulation of computed
positions, velocities and derived right ascension and
declination of GPS satellites at specific times for
eventual upload to GPS satellites.
Monitor Stations
Six monitor stations are located at Falcon Air Force
Base in Colorado, Cape Canaveral, Florida, Hawaii,
Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean, Diego Garcia
Atoll in the Indian Ocean, and Kwajalein Island in the
South Pacific Ocean.
Each of the monitor stations checks the exact altitude,
position, speed, and overall health of the orbiting
satellites.
Monitor Stations (continued)
The control segment uses measurements collected by
the monitor stations to predict the behavior of each
satellite's orbit and clock.
The prediction data is up-linked, or transmitted, to the
satellites for transmission back to the users.
The control segment also ensures that the GPS
satellite orbits and clocks remain within acceptable
limits. A station can track up to 11 satellites at a time.
Monitor Stations (continued)
This "check-up" is performed twice a day, by each
station, as the satellites complete their journeys
around the earth.
Variations such as those caused by the gravity of the
moon, sun and the pressure of solar radiation, are
passed along to the master control station.
Ground Antennas
Ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from
horizon to horizon.
They also transmit correction information to
individual satellites.
User Segment
The user's GPS receiver is the US of the GPS system.
GPS receivers are generally composed of an antenna, tuned
to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-
processors, and a highly-stable clock, commonly a crystal
oscillator).
They can also include a display for showing location and
speed information to the user.
A receiver is often described by its number of channels this
signifies how many satellites it can monitor
simultaneously. As of recent, receivers usually have
between twelve and twenty channels.
User Segment (continued)
Using the RTCM SC-104 format, GPS receivers may
include an input for differential corrections.
This is typically in the form of a RS-232 port at 4,800 bps
speed. Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which
limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM.
Receivers with internal DGPS receivers are able to
outclass those using external RTCM data.
Navigational Systems
GPS satellites broadcast three different types of data in
the primary navigation signal.
Almanac – sends time and status information about the
satellites.
Ephemeris – has orbital information that allows the
receiver to calculate the position of the satellite.
 This data is included in the 37,500 bit Navigation Message,
which takes 12.5 minutes to send at 50 bps.
Navigational Systems (cont’d)
Satellites broadcast two forms of clock information
Coarse / Acquisition code (C/A) - freely available to the
public. The C/A code is a 1,023 bit long pseudo-random
code broadcast at 1.023 MHz, repeating every
millisecond.
Restricted Precise code (P-code) - reserved for military
usage. The P-code is a similar code broadcast at 10.23
MHz, but it repeats only once a week. In normal
operation, the anti-spoofing mode, the P code is first
encrypted into the Y-code, or P(Y), which can only be
decrypted by users a valid key.
GPS Frequencies
L1 (1575.42 MHz) - Mix of Navigation Message, coarse-
acquisition (C/A) code and encrypted precision P(Y)
code.
L2 (1227.60 MHz) - P(Y) code, plus the new L2C code
on the Block IIR-M and newer satellites.
L3 (1381.05 MHz) - Used by the Defense Support
Program to signal detection of missile launches,
nuclear detonations, and other applications.
GPS Proposed Frequencies
L4 (1379.913 MHz) - Being studied for additional
correction to the part of the atmosphere that is ionized
by solar radiation.
L5 (1176.45 MHz) – To be used as a civilian safety-of-
life (SoL) signal.
Internationally protected range for aeronautical
navigation.
The first satellite that using this signal to be launched in
2008.
Position Calculation
The coordinates are calculated according to the World
Geodetic System WGS84 coordinate system.
The satellites are equipped with atomic clocks
Receiver uses an internal crystal oscillator-based clock
that is continually updated using the signals from the
satellites.
Receiver identifies each satellite's signal by its distinct
C/A code pattern, then measures the time delay for
each satellite.
Position Calculation (cont’d)
The receiver emits an identical C/A sequence using the
same seed number the satellite used.
By aligning the two sequences, the receiver can measure
the delay and calculate the distance to the satellite, called
the pseudorange.
Orbital position data from the Navigation Message is
used to calculate the satellite's precise position. Knowing
the position and the distance of a satellite indicates that
the receiver is located somewhere on the surface of an
imaginary sphere centered on that satellite and whose
radius is the distance to it.
Position Calculation (cont’d)
When four satellites are measured at the same time,
the point where the four imaginary spheres meet is
recorded as the location of the receiver.
Earth-based users can substitute the sphere of the
planet for one satellite by using their altitude. Often,
these spheres will overlap slightly instead of meeting
at one point, so the receiver will yield a mathematically
most-probable position.
Issues That Affect Accuracy
Changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of
the GPS signals as they pass through the Earth's
atmosphere and ionosphere.
Effect is minimized when the satellite is directly
overhead
Becomes greater for satellites nearer the horizon, since
the signal is affected for a longer time.
Once the receiver's approximate location is known, a
mathematical model can be used to estimate and
compensate for these errors.
Issues That Affect Accuracy (cont’d)
Clock Errors can occur when, for example, a GPS
satellite is boosted back into a proper orbit.
The receiver's calculation of the satellite's position will
be incorrect until it receives another ephemeris update.
Onboard clocks are accurate, but they suffer from partial
clock drift.
Issues That Affect Accuracy (cont’d)
GPS Jamming can be used to limit the effectiveness of
the GPS signal
For example, it is believed GPS guided missles have been
misled to attack non-target locations in the war in
Afghanistan.
The stronger the jamming signal, the more interference
can be caused to the GPS signal.
Issues That Affect Accuracy (cont’d)
GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues
Radio signals reflect off surrounding objects at a
location. These delayed signals can cause inaccuracy.
Less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna
is moving, the false solutions using reflected signals
quickly fail to converge and only the direct signals result
in stable solutions.
Airbag Control Unit
• Supplementary Restraint System for driver
and/or passenger safety in case of a
crash.
• Federal Government mandate in 1989 states
that we need some sort of automatic occupant
safety device.
– Choice #1 is an automatic safety belt feature.
• Very costly
• High failure rate
– Choice #2 (Air Bag)
• Universal production
• Better safety choice
– Choice #3 = Both (Best)

Copyright 2000 AST Training

 Components of Airbag systems

The dual front airbag system consists of the following

components:
 Airbag Control Module (ACM)
 Airbag indicator lamp
 Clockspring
 Driver and passenger side airbag modules
 (including the airbag inflators)
 Driver and passenger side knee blockers
 Wire harness and connections.
 • Located inside the
steering wheel. This
device is used to
connect the hard wired
air bag harness to the
systems harness while
allowing the steering
wheel to maintain a
full range of motion.

Copyright 2000 AST Training

• Basic Mechanism
A thin nylon bag in the steering wheel
inflates in the event of an impact and prevents the
driver/passenger from hitting the steering
wheel/dashboard.
• Several crash sensors located in the front of
vehicle and in the passenger compartment.
• Each senses the sudden deceleration or impact in
the event of a crash and flips a mechanical switch
to indicate a crash.
• The sensors can detect the direction of impact, so
front airbags will generally not deploy during side
impacts.
• After collision sensor sends an electric
current to igniter system.
• this electric current is used to heat a
filament wire that ignites the NaN3(Sodium
azide) capsules, producing N2.
• 130 g of NaN3 produce
67 liters of Na
• The gas expands quickly and inflation of
air bags take place , which break through
a plastic cover in the steering wheel
• air bags are designed to inflate in frontal
impacts in which the car strikes about 16
km/hr
 Time in Actions
milliseconds
0 Automobile makes initial contact with other
object.
30 Microprocessor decides to deploy airbags.
Signal is sent to deployment mechanism.
32 Pyrotechnic device ignites, and gas enters
airbag
60 Airbag is fully inflated
• Immediately after full inflation, the airbag
deflates through tiny pores on the surface
within 0.3s
• Several holes are designed into each
airbag to slowly expel gas when the
occupant strikes the airbag. This action
helps absorb the energy of the occupant
and prevent the occupant from being
bounced backwards.
 5. Seat Position Sensor
• The seat position sensor, which is attached to the seat rail of the driver
seat, detects the sliding position of the seat. In addition, the shielding plate
to make the seat position sensor judge the seat position is installed on this
seat rail.
• The seat position sensor use a Hall IC for its sensor and has magnet
portion on its opposite side.
Sensors used by the Airbag unit

 Occupant detector
 Seat Belt Pretensioner
 crash sensor
 Seat position sensor
 Safing sensor
 BELT PRETENSIONER

The seatbelt pretensioner automatically winds the seatbelt at the frontal collision to
restrain the forward travel of the passenger. The seatbelt pretensioner operates in ahead
of the SRS airbag deployment to restrain the forward travel of the passenger at the
frontal collision, for achieving the effective SRS airbag.
BELT PRETENSIONER
Seatbelt pretensioner operation

1.When the pretensioner is inactivated, the clearance between the roller and
the sleeve is secured, and thus the sleeve rotates freely. The spool which
winds the seatbelt rotates together as with the sleeve.

2.At the frontal collision, SRS-ECU which has detected the impact exceeding
the threshold from the front impact sensors is energized to ignite the gas
generator. Then the gas is generated, and the gas pressure moves up the
piston.

3.When the piston moves up, the rack gear of the piston is engaged with the
pinion gear of the pinion to rotate the pinion. When the pinion rotates, the
pinion is tilted to move the roller to the center, and the pinion, sleeve, and
spool are incorporated.

4.The gas pressure moves up the piston farther, and the pinion rotates the
spool to wind the belt.
  Occupant detector

Seat occupied sensor, G128 is a plastic foil, which covers the rear part of the front
passenger seat. It consists
Sensorsofused
several individual
by the pressure sensors. This ensures that
Airbag unit
the relevant part of the seat is sensed. The seat occupied sensor, front passenger
side, reacts to pressure and changes its resistance, depending on the load. If seat
occupied sensor, front passenger side, G128 is subjected to a load greater than
approx. 5kg, the airbag control unit detects ”Seat occupied”. As long as the front
passenger seat is unoccupied, the seat occupied sensor has a high resistance. If
the seat is occupied, the resistance drops. If the resistance exceeds480ohms, the
airbag control unit detects an interruption and sets a fault in the fault memory. The
airbag control unit uses the information from the seat occupied sensor and the belt
lock switch for the wearing belt detector.
 Safing sensor

To prevent false deployments that might result from bumping into objects or a slow speed fender
bender, most air bag systems also have one or two "safety" or "arming" sensors which are
usually located inside the passenger compartment (under the dash or seat, in the airbag control
module, or in Sensors
the steering wheel
used air bag
by the module).
Airbag unit The safety sensor will not allow the bag to
deploy unless it also experiences a certain rate of deceleration (usually less than that of the
crash sensors If both the crash sensors and safety sensor(s) are triggered by a collision, then
and only then does the electronic control module say okay and ignite the air bag inflator.

 The safing sensor is dual contact electromechanical switch, which closes if it experiences a
deceleration exceeding a specified threshold.

 The operation of the sensor is completely independent of all electronic components in the
SRSCM and firing current must flow across the safing sensor contact to activate the squibs.

 This provides additional protection against an unwanted deployment for the airbag firing circuits.
Ball and Tube type Crash Sensor

Two types of airbag sensors used in cars are electrical and mechanical. Electrical sensors vary in design.
Some use an electromechanical "ball and tube" mechanism, which basically consists of a small tube
containing a circuit switch and ball that's held together by a small magnet. If a collision occurs, the ball is
dislodged from the magnet and rolls forward in the tube, hitting a switch that completes the electrical
circuit. Other electrical designs are similar in principle, using a metal roller or spring loaded weight instead
of a ball, or in newer cars, an accelerometer to trip the sensor.
Sensors used by the Airbag unit

 Seat position sensor