Mechanical Workshop

Presenters : Chris Akpan &

Adeboye O.
 INTRODUCTION

• Alignment: On Electric Motors,

Compressors, Pumps, Engines,
Fans and Fan Blade. Pulleys and
Couplings Etc.
• Procedure and Techniques
 A
Alignment is the adjustment of an object in relation with
An illustration of alignment and non-alignment.

Alignment : Is the adjustment of an object in relation

other objects, or a static orientation of some object or set
of objects in relation to others.
An alignment of megaliths: see stone row.
Alignment (role-playing games) refers to the moral and
ethical perspective of the player characters, non-player
characters, monsters, and societies in the game.
 METHOD: Dial gauge method

• EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS REQUIRED:

• Dial gauge indicator, Vee-blocks, flat table

with clamps, smooth files, polishing stones
and smooth sand paper. etc.
PROCEDURE:
step 1. you need to be familiar with techniques, terms, safety rules
and procedures with the machine or equipment you are about
to align.
Step 2. Visually check coupling, pipe hankers, base bolt, and
coupling spacing. Check for coupling and shaft run out.

Step 3. Ensure you have all the require tools and materials as
mentioned above
Step 4. Prepare the machine you are to align, electric motor to
pump or coupling to electric motor. Remove all existing shims
from under the feet if old shims are to be use, clean them
thoroughly. Always use minimum amount of shims, clean the
base thoroughly, scrape and file away all rust, nicks and burrs.
Examine the base bolts and holes, re-tap or replace bolts if
necessary.
 Step 5. Clean mounting surfaces, file off nicks and burrs,
check indicators for sticking and loose niddle, aim indicator
stem directly towards center line of shaft. Measure distance
between the two indicators, measure distance between
indicator and front feet and measure distance between front
and back feet. The horizontal move is the part of the
alignment process that aligns the shafts center lines from
side to side. View the machine from the pump end, zero the
indicators on the left, and then rotate and read on the right.
Make sure that you view the pump from the same direction
in other for you to keep the left and right directions correct
 Alignment Check
It is extremely important that the driver-to-compressor
alignment
be checked before start-up.
NOTE
The following procedure is designed for a standard flex type
coupling alignment.
A check of the drive alignment is required before starting the
unit. The purpose of this drive
alignment is to verify that, during positioning of the skid, the
alignment of the driver crankshaft to the
compressor crankshaft has not shifted. The following procedure
applies to the coupling drive
arrangement normally supplied:
1. Make a suitable fixture to mount two dial indicators at the
coupling hub.
2. After the fixture is securely fastened to the coupling hub,
mount a dial indicator to read on
the outer rim of the compressor coupling hub and another
indicator to read on the face of the hub.
3. Rotate the driver through one complete revolution and
bring both indicators to the top
vertical position with the respect to the driver flywheel; then,
using a marking pencil or
chalk, place reference marks on the flywheel and flywheel
housing. These will be the zero
reference marks.
 4. Mark the flywheel housing at the 90º, 180º and 270º
positions. These marks will be used as
reference points to take the dial indicator readings.
5. Using a bar, shift both crankshafts against their stops in
the same direction.
6. Zero the dial indicators, with the driver flywheel at the top
vertical reference marks, then
rotate the driver to the 90º mark and take an indicator
reading; repeat at the 180º and 270º
marks and then return to the starting point. Recheck the
zero settings at the starting point.
Be sure the driver and compressor crankshafts are first
shifted per Step 5 before recording
the indicator reading at each reference point
 7. Compare the dial indicator readings to determine the main point of
misalignment. If readings
taken at the 180º reference point indicate that the driver is high or low at the
drive-coupling
end, this will, in most cases, indicate that the driver end of the skid is not properly
leveled
with respect to the compressor end. Correct this misalignment by raising or
lowering the
driver by readjusting the shimming at the driver mounting points.
8. When it has been determined that any possible misalignment has been
corrected by
raising or lowering the driver, take a final set of indicator readings at each of the
reference
points. The coupling misalignment should be as close to zero as possible and
must not
exceed 0.005 inch (0.13 mm) Total Indicator Reading when the equipment is up
to operating
temperature. Therefore a tolerance for thermal growth should be considered
When performing this cold alignment procedure. (Ensure you do
it to the specifications of the manufacturer).
If further alignment adjustments are necessary, do this by adding
or removing shims from the driver mounting points and by
moving the driver sideways, if required,
using Jack screws against the sides of the driver base.
NOTE
In most cases, Dresser-Rand specifies coupling misalignment
Limits that are much tighter than those allowed by the coupling
manufacturers.
Always adhere to the Dresser-Rand limits.
 COMPRESSOR

• Maintenance
• Trouble shooting
• Operations
• FLM (Front Line Maintenance).
 LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Lubrication: Is the process, or technique employed to
reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity, and
moving relative to each another, by interposing a substance
called lubricant between the surfaces to carry or to help
carry the load (pressure generated) between the opposing
surfaces. The interposed lubricant film can be a solid, (e.g.
graphite, a solid/liquid dispersion, a liquid, a liquid-liquid
dispersion gasses exceptionally a gas.
In the most common case the applied load is carried by
pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional
viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between
the surfaces.
Lubrication can also describe the phenomenon such
reduction of wear occurs without human intervention
(hydroplaning on a road
 LUBRICATION SYSTEM CONT.
Lubrication of the ship steam engine crankshaft. The two bottles with lubricant are attached to the piston and move while the engine is operating.

Lubrication is the process, or technique employed to

 LUBRICATION CONT.
The regimes of lubrication
As the load increases on the contacting surfaces three distinct situations
can be observed with respect to the mode of lubrication, which are
called regimes of lubrication:
Fluid film lubrication is the lubrication regime in which through viscous
forces the load is fully supported by the lubricant within the space or gap
between the parts in motion relative to one another (the lubricated
conjunction and solid–solid contact is avoided.[2]
Hydrostatic lubrication is when an external pressure is applied to
the lubricant in the bearing, to maintain the fluid lubricant film where
it would otherwise be squeezed out.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is where the motion of the contacting
surfaces, and the exact design of the bearing is used to pump
lubricant around the bearing to maintain the lubricating film. This
design of bearing may wear when started or stopped, as the
lubricant film breaks down.
 LUBRICATION CONT.
Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication: The opposing surfaces are
separated, but there occurs some interaction between the raised
solid features called asperities, and there is an elastic deformation
on the contacting surface enlarging the load-bearing area whereby
the viscous resistance of the lubricant becomes capable of
supporting the load.
Boundary lubrication (also called boundary film lubrication): The
bodies come into closer contact at their asperities; the heat
developed by the local pressures causes a condition which is called
stick-slip and some asperities break off. At the elevated temperature
and pressure conditions chemically reactive constituents of the
lubricant react with the contact surface forming a highly resistant
tenacious layer, or film on the moving solid surfaces (boundary film)
which is capable of supporting the load and major wear or breakdown
is avoided. Boundary lubrication is also defined as that regime in
which the load is carried by the surface asperities rather than by the
lubricant.[3]
 LUBRICATION CONT.

Besides supporting the load the lubricant may have to perform other
functions as well, for instance it may cool the contact areas and remove
wear products. While carrying out these functions the lubricant is
constantly replaced from the contact areas either by the relative
movement (hydrodynamics) or by externally induced forces.
Lubrication is required for correct operation of mechanical systems
pistons, pumps, cams, bearings, turbines, cutting tools etc. where
without lubrication the pressure between the surfaces in close proximity
would generate enough heat for rapid surface damage which in a
coarsened condition may literally weld the surfaces together, causing
seizure.
In some applications, such as piston engines, the film between the piston
and the cylinder wall also seals the combustion chamber, preventing
combustion gases from escaping into the crankcase.
 , LUBRICATION.
If the machine has set for over 6 months
proceed with the following:
1. Remove the outer head and inboard suction
valve assembly from each compressor cylinder
and inspect the cylinder bores.
2. Reassemble the cylinders using adequate
lubricating oil.
NOTE
For cylinders operating in non-lube service, re-
assemble cylinders dry.
 LUBRICATION for the grade and quantity.
Recommendations:
1. The operator uses a manual hand pump or motor-driven
priming pump to circulate the oil
and fill the lubricating system (vent air from oil filter while
circulating). The bearings may
suffer from a “dry” start. Add oil to the frame sump as
required. Do not fill above the level
mark on the level gauge because the rotating compressor
parts may strike the oil surface,
causing foaming and loss of oil pressure.
2. Continue to operate the priming pump until pressure
indication is seen at the gauge. Check
external oil piping during this period for tight connections
 All precautionary measures specified by the
Occupational Safety
and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA) must be complied
with when
starting, handling, or using solvents.
Check all oil piping for tight connections.
Fill the frame oil sump to the level indicator on the oil
level gauge
 Cylinder Unloading
Unloading of a cylinder end is done by retracting the suction
valve from the unloaded
end. This has the effect of reducing the capacity of the
machine by the amount of flow the
unloaded end is capable of generating. This method of
capacity control reduces the horsepower
requirements by approximately 50 percent. Unloading
sequences not initially approved or
reviewed can lead to overloads, non-reversal, overheating,
and/or valve reliability problems.
Consult with a Dresser-Rand representative if such
unloading sequences have not been
approved.
 Suction Pressure Control
Controlling the suction pressure to the compressor can also
be used to control capacity. This
is most often used when horsepower is limited and the flow
rate is higher than the unit can handle. A
suction control valve is used to hold the suction pressure to a
preset limit, thereby limiting flow.
Performance must be run at the desired set point to ensure
that temperature and rod load limits
Of the compressor are not exceeded. This method of
capacity control offers the advantage of a stable
operating condition for the unit.
 Capacity Control Bypass
A unit bypass system may be used to control capacity,
particularly when the unit is
oversized, or when the suction pressure is not stable and has
a tendency to fall below a desirable
limit. This method utilizes a pressure control valve in the
bypass system around the unit, set to
operate at the minimum operating point for the compressor.
When this method is used, it is important
that the bypass gas stream be taken downstream of a
process after cooler. This will avoid an
uncontrolled temperature rise during continuous operation.
Figure 3-1 illustrates a typical bypass
system.
 COMPRESSOR LOADING AND UNLOADING
It is important that the compressor be unloaded prior to and during startup.
There are two basic methods to loading and unloading a compressor.
Which of the two is best suited for a particular
installation depends on site conditions. The following should be considered
prior to designing
 The two methods are as follows:
(1)• Bypass and discharge check valve method
(2)• Vent valve method
Probably the simplest, most reliable and safest method, is by use of a
Bypass and discharge check valve method.
This is illustrated in Figure 3-2. With this set-up, there is little danger of
exceeding rated rod
load and the rate of loading can be controlled by the rate of closing the
bypass valve. On multiple-stage
units, this set-up works well for sequence loading because each bock
valve is opened or closed
separately. It should be noted that with this method, when the compressor
cylinders and piping are
pressurized to suction gas pressure, the load on the unit will be dependent
on the sizing of the bypass
valve and associated piping, Also, the sizing of the bypass valve and
piping will be the limiting factor on
the period of time the unit can be bypassed without excessive
gas heating.
The other method of loading and unloading is the vent valve
method. This is illustrated in Figure
3-3. This method results in the venting of excess gas during
loading which may not be acceptable in
certain situations at particular sites. Also, during idling periods
the compressor will pull partial vacuum on
the suction piping downstream of the suction valve, and it is
extremely important that the unit is purged
prior to loading. Additionally, the suction valve must be fully
open prior to closing the vent valve to prevent
the possibility of generating excessive rod loads
 Loading/Unloading Procedure – Bypass and Discharge Check Valve
Method
1. Prior to starting the unit, ensure the suction and discharge valves are
closed. Then, open the
bypass valve and the vent valve to de-pressurize the compressor cylinders
and piping to atmosphere.
2. Start the driver and allow it to idle and warm up; after ten minutes of
warm-up, bring it up to fast idle.
3. Open the discharge valve, which will allow discharge pressure to back
up against the Discharge check valve
4. Partially open the suction valve to purge the compressor cylinders and
piping.
5. Pressurize the compressor cylinders and piping by closing the vent
valve and opening the suction valve.
6. Load the unit by closing the bypass valve.
7. Reverse the preceding steps to UNLOAD.
 Loading/Unloading Procedure – Vent Valve Method
1. Prior to starting the unit, ensure the suction and discharge
valves are closed. Then, open the
vent valve to( de-) pressurize the compressor cylinders and
piping to atmospheric pressure.
2. Start the driver and allow it to idle and warm up; after ten
minutes of warm-up, bring it up to fast idle.
3. Open the discharge valve, which will allow discharge
pressure to back up against the discharge CHECK VALVE,
4. Partially open the suction valve to purge the compressor
cylinders and piping.
5. Load the unit by opening the suction valve fully, then by
closing the vent valve.
6. Reverse the preceding steps to UNLOAD.
During loading
Description on Loading
During Unloading
Unloading Description
 COOLING SYSTEM (COMP.)

Compressor Cooling System

1. Run coolant through the shell and tube
type compressor oil cooler to be sure the
cooling
System is operative and that all connections
are tight.
Vent the waterside of the cooler and all high
Points in the piping to remove trapped air.
 COOLING SYSTEM

An evaporative cooler (also swamp cooler, desert

cooler, and wet air cooler) is a device that cools air
through the evaporation of water. Evaporative cooling
differs from typical air conditioning systems which use
vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles.
Evaporative cooling works by employing water's large
enthalpy of vaporization. The temperature of dry air can be
dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid
water to water vapor, which requires much less energy
than refrigeration. In extremely dry climates, it also has the
added benefit of conditioning the air with more moisture for
the comfort of occupants. Unlike refrigeration, it requires a
water source, and must continually consume water to
operate
 COOLING SYSTEM CONT.

Indirect evaporative cooling (closed circuit) is similar to direct

evaporative cooling, but uses some type of heat exchanger.
The cooled moist air never comes in direct contact with the
conditioned environment.
Two-stage evaporative cooling, or indirect-direct. Traditional
evaporative coolers use only a fraction of the energy of
vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning systems.
Unfortunately, except in very dry climates they increase
humidity to a level that makes occupants uncomfortable.
Two-stage evaporative coolers do not produce humidity
levels as high as that produced by traditional single-stage
evaporative coolers.
 COOLING SYSTEM CONT.

In the first stage of a two-stage cooler, warm air is pre-

cooled indirectly without adding humidity (by passing
inside a heat exchanger that is cooled by evaporation
on the outside). In the direct stage, the pre-cooled air
passes through a water-soaked pad and picks up
humidity as it cools. Since the air supply is pre-cooled
in the first stage, less humidity is needed in the direct
stage to reach the desired cooling temperatures. The
result, according to manufacturers, is cooler air with a
relative humidity between 50 and 70 percent,
depending on the climate, compared to a traditional
system that produces about 70–80 percent relative
humidity air.
Evaporative cooler System.
 FILTRATION CONT.

Filtration is commonly the mechanical or physical

operation which is used for the separation of solids
from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a
medium through which only the fluid can pass.
Oversize solids in the fluid are retained, but the
separation is not complete; solids will be
contaminated with some fluid and filtrate will contain
fine particles (depending on the pore size and filter
thickness). Filtration is also used to describe some
biological processes, especially in water treatment
and sewage treatment in which undesirable
constituents are removed by adsorption into a
biological film grown on or in the filter medium.
 Filtration
Diagram of simple filtration: oversize particles in the feed cannot pass through the lattice structure of the filter, whi (((le fluid and small particles pass through, becoming filtrate.
Filtration is commonly the mechanical or physical
 FILTRATION CONT.

Methods
There are many different methods of filtration; all
aim to attain the separation of substances.
Separation is achieved by some form of
interaction between the substance or objects to
be removed and the filter. The substance that is to
pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e. a liquid
or gas. Methods of filtration vary depending on
the location of the targeted material, i.e. whether
it is dissolved in the fluid phase or suspended as
a solid
 Air Filters, Dust Filters & Gas Filters
Providing filtration solutions to your design or ours
 FILTRATION CONT.
Applications
Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension,
where the fluid can be a liquid, a gas or a supercritical fluid.
Depending on the application, either one or both of the
components may be isolated.
Filtration, as a physical operation is very important in chemistry for
the separation of materials of different chemical composition. A
solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not
dissolving the other. By dissolving the mixture in the chosen
solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through
the filter, while the other will be retained. This is one of the most
important techniques used by chemists to purify compounds.
Filtration is also important and widely used as one of the unit
operations of chemical engineering. It may be simultaneously
combined with other unit operations to process the feed stream.
 APPLICATION CONT.
Filtration differs from sieving, where separation
occurs at a single perforated layer (a sieve). In
sieving, particles that are too big to pass through the
holes of the sieve are retained (see particle size
distribution). In filtration, a multilayer lattice retains
those particles that are unable to follow the tortuous
channels of the filter.[1] Oversize particles may form a
cake layer on top of the filter and may also block the
filter lattice, preventing the fluid phase from crossing
the filter (blinding). Commercially, the term filter is
applied to membranes where the separation lattice is
so thin that the surface becomes the main zone of
particle separation, even though these products
might be described as sieves.
 Air Filters, Dust Filters & Gas Filters
Showing variety of filters and designed for filtration
solutions.
 FILTRATION CONT.
Filtration differs from adsorption, where it is not the
physical size of particles that causes separation but the
effects of surface charge. Some adsorption devices
containing activated charcoal and ion exchange resin
are commercially called filters, although filtration is not
their principal function.
Filtration differs from removal of magnetic contaminants
from fluids with magnets (typically lubrication oil,
coolants and fuel oils), because there is no filter
medium. Commercial devices called "magnetic filters"
are sold, but the name reflects their use, not their mode
of operation.
The remainder of this article focuses primarily on liquid
filtration
 FILTRATION CONT.

Two main types of filter media are employed in the chemical laboratory—
surface filter, a solid sieve which traps the solid particles, with or without
the aid of filter paper (e.g. Büchner funnel, Belt filter, Rotary vacuum-drum
filter, Cross-flow filters, Screen filter), and a depth filter, a bed of granular
material which retains the solid particles as it passes (e.g. sand filter). The
first type allows the solid particles, i.e. the residue, to be collected intact;
the second type does not permit this. However, the second type is less
prone to clogging due to the greater surface area where the particles can
be trapped. Also, when the solid particles are very fine, it is often cheaper
and easier to discard the contaminated granules than to clean the solid
sieve.
Filter media can be cleaned by rinsing with solvents or detergents.
Alternatively, in engineering applications, such as swimming pool water
treatment plants, they may be cleaned by backwashing. Self-cleaning
screen filters utilize point-of-suction backwashing to clean the screen
without interrupting system flow
 FILTRATION CONT.

Achieving flow through the filter

Fluids flow through a filter due to a difference in pressure
— fluid flows from the high pressure side to the low
pressure side of the filter, leaving some material behind.
The simplest method to achieve this is by gravity. In the
laboratory, pressure in the form of compressed air on the
feed side (or vacuum on the filtrate side) may be applied
to make the filtration process faster, though this may lead
to clogging or the passage of fine particles. Alternatively,
the liquid may flow through the filter by the force exerted
by a pump, a method commonly used in industry when a
reduced filtration time is important. In this case, the filter
need not be mounted vertically.
 DRYERS
Compressed air MUST be dried. This is undesirable
statement of fact : Today's modern industry can no longer
tolerate the problems of wet, dirty compressed air. Wet
air causes rust, pitting, blockages, and freeze-ups, with
resultant component failure and product rejection. Wet
air is a major contributor of downtime, causing millions of
pounds of lost production. The cost of wet air varies with
each and every application. However, the cost of wet air
is always many times greater than the cost of a dryer.
Compressed air dryers pay for themselves, many times
over, by increasing production, reducing downtime and
adding to your bottom line. The tough question you have
to answer is which type of dryer is the best choice for
your application.
Drying system cont.
Drying system
DRYER CONT
DRYER CONT.
OIL SYSTEM
 Ci1>Pre-intercooler, Ci>intercooler, Co>oil cooler, Cv>Check
valve, Eh>High-pressure comp. element, El>Low-pressure comp
element, Fn>fan, Mta>Moisture trap aftercooler, Mti>Moisture trap
intercooler, Of>Oil Filter, Op>Oil Pump.
Air system
Air system cont.
Air system cont.
 AIR DRYER (DRYERS)

A compressed air dryer is a device for removing water vapor

from compressed air. Compressed air dryers are commonly
found in a wide range of industrial and commercial facilities.
The process of air compression concentrates atmospheric
contaminants, including water vapor. This raises the dew point
of the compressed air relative to free atmospheric air and leads
to condensation within pipes as the compressed air cools
downstream of the compressor.
Excessive water in compressed air, either in the liquid or vapor
phase, can cause a variety of operational problems for users of
compressed air. These include freezing of outdoor air lines;
corrosion of equipment; fouling of processes and products.
There are various types of compressed air dryers. Their
performance characteristics are typically defined by the dew
point.
 DRYERS CONT.

Characteristics
A regenerative desiccant dryer typically delivers
a dew point of between -40°F(-40°C) and -100°F
(-73°C)
A refrigerated dryer delivers a dew point not
lower than approximately 35°F (2°C)
A deliquescent dryer delivers a dew point
suppression that fluctuates with air temperature.
Typically this suppression is 20F below the
compressed air temperature.
 DRYERS CONT.

Refrigerated dryer
Refrigeration dryers employ two heat exchangers, one for air-to-air and one
for air to refrigeration. However, there is also a single TRISAB heat
exchanger that combines both functions. The compressors used in this type
of dryer are usually of the hermetic type and the most common gas used is
R-134a. The goal of having two heat exchangers is that the cold outgoing air
cools down the hot incoming air and reduces the size of compressor
required. At the same time the increase in the temperature of outgoing air
prevents re-condensation.
Most manufacturers produce "cycling dryers". These store a cold mass that
cools the air when the compressor is OFF. When the refrigeration
compressor runs, the large mass takes much longer to cool, so the
compressor runs longer, and stays OFF longer. These units operate at lower
dew points, typically in the 35 to 40 degree F range. When selected with the
optional "cold coalescing filter", these units can deliver compressed air with
lower dew points.
 DRYERS CONT.
Deliquescent dryer
A deliquescent dryer typically consists of a pressure vessel
filled with a hygroscopic media that absorbs water vapor. The
media gradually dissolves—or deliquesces—to form a
solution at the base of the pressure vessel. The liquid must
be regularly drained from the vessel and new media must be
added. The media is usually in tablet or briquette form.
Deliquescent dryers have no moving parts and don't require
electrical power for operation. Common applications
therefore often involve remote, hazardous, or mobile
worksites. Deliquescent dryers are used for removing water
vapor from compressed air, natural gas, and waste gases
such as landfill gas and digester gas.
The performance of a deliquescent dryer, as measured by
outlet dew point, is highly dependent on the temperature of
the air or gas being processed, with cooler temperatures
 DRYERS CONT.
Desiccant dryer
The term "desiccant dryer" refers to a broad class of dryers. Other terms
commonly used are regenerative dryer and twin tower dryer, and to a lesser
extent adsorption dryer.
The compressed air is passed through a pressure vessel filled with an
adsorbent media such as activated alumina, silica gel, molecular sieve or other
desiccant material. The desiccant can bring the dew-point of the water vapor in
the air down to -40 degrees Celsius or below. This means that the air will not
condense (deposition) water until it is cooled to -40 degrees Celsius. In practice
two cylinders with desiccant are used; one is drying the air, while the other
vessel is being regenerated. The switching of the vessels and the regeneration
sequence is typically done automatically via solenoid operated valves.
The regeneration of the desiccant vessel can be during three different methods:
Heatless "pressure-swing" drying which uses part of the dry compressed air
coming from the other vessel to dry the desiccant in the vessel being generated
at lower pressure.
Heated dryer, this can use a hot air blower, so there is no loss of compressed
air.
Heat of compression. This can only be used with an oilfree compressor.
A typical comp. diagram showing drying system
 COMPRESSOR SEALING SYSTEM

To share learning from hands-on

experience, familiarise the Operation &

Maintenance team with the installation

and maintenance of the AG main

compressor sealing system.

 Sealing System Cont.

Seals are use to stop process fluid from leaking to

environment. Hence in high pressure compressors,
series of sealing elements are used to achieved proper
sealing .
The AG compressor sealing element comprises the
following:
Labyrinth Seal. The seal is the first sealing element in
the system which breaks down the pressure before dry
gas seal (Mechanical seal).
Mechanical seal (Dry Gas Seal). This provides a more
efficient sealing system for Compressors with no
leakage of product. This seal function is to stop high
pressure escaping to environment.
 Sealing Cont.

Barrier Seal. This is the final sealing element

that stop intrusion and extrusion of lubricating
oil/process gas into the system.
Radial and Axial bearings. These are used to
support the axial and radial rotation of the shaft.
 Installation Procedure (of sealing).

Inspect the bearing and Dry Gas Seal assembly prior to installation.
Clean Seal Element compartment.
Centralize shaft for labyrinth seal installation using DTI and OEM special
tools.
Install labyrinth seal and ensure it fits into the casing locking slot.
Install the mechanical seal (Dry Gas Seal) using the special tool and
ensure it fits into the casing frame.
Remove the Dry Gas Seal transportation plates.
Install the Barrier seal using the OEM tool.
Remove the transportation plate and install end plate/lock ring.
Install radial and axial bearings including temperature probes.
Install coupling hub and make ready for cold alignment.
Cover casing and clean work site
Installation Procedure cont.

The bearing
housing cover is
removed and
Unit is prepared
for
transportation
bearing
extraction.
Thrust collar Extraction
.

The special tool is

used to extract
the collar/sleeve
from the shaft.
The Hp line is
pressurised from
0 to 1400barg
The LP is
pressurised from 0
to 350barg.
The depth
measurement is
taken to ensure
accurate
cclearances are
observed during
sealing system
iinstallation.
The labyrinth seal
is installed after
the depth
measurement is
completed.
The seal lock is
fitted into the
locator on the
casing frame.
The special
tool is placed
on the shaft to
provide a drive
passage to the
dry gas seal
Installation of Dry Gas Seal

The dry gas seal

is slide into
position with the
aid of shaft cover
sleeve to ensure
no damage to
the shaft
surface.
Installation of Dry Gas seal .
Dry gas seal
installed in
position and
all bolt
tightened to
right torque.
Hence, the
DGS
installation
tool is
removed.
 Barrier seal installation
The seal is installed with
transportation washer in place

The seal is installed with

transportation washer in
place
 locator

The barrier seal is

installed using the
special tool to secure it
in place

The barrier seal is

completely installed in the
housing and unit ready for
bearing installation
 Bearing Installation

• CONTINUE ON THE NEXT

FOLDER
Types of compressors
The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:
Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that uses arrays of fan-like
airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a
requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design.

The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The
rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils,
also known as stators or vanes, decelerate and re-direct the flow direction of the fluid,
preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi-
staged, with the cross-sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to
maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure
ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve operation.
 Rotary screw comp.

Diagram of a rotary screw compressor

Rotary screw compressors uses two meshed rotating positive-
displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These
are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial
applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can
be from 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and
from low pressure to moderately high pressure (>1,200 psi or 8.3 MPa).
 Centrifugal Compressor
• Centrifugal compressors uses a rotating disk or
impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim
of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A
diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity
energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for
continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil
refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and
natural gas processing plants. Their application can be
from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of
horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve
extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi.
 Centrifugal Comp. Cont.
Figure 1: A single stage centrifugal compressor
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or
 Scroll Compressor

• A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and

scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like
vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and
gases. The vane geometry may be involute,
archimedean spiral or hybrid curves. They operate more
smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of
compressors in the lower volume range
• Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits
eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and
pumping or compressing pockets of fluid or gas between
the scrolls.
• This type of compressor was used as the supercharger
on Volkswagen G60 and G40 engines in the early
1990s.
Mechanism of a scroll pump

Scroll Comp. Cont.

A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll
RECIPROCATING OR PISTON COMPRESSORS

A reciprocating compressor or piston

compressor is a positive-displacement
compressor that uses pistons driven by a
crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.

The intake gas enters the suction manifold,

then flows into the compression cylinder where
it gets compressed by a piston driven in a
reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is
then discharged.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR COMPERSSOR
CONT.
 FOR FRONT LINNERS

• STARTS FOR THE FRONT LINE

MAINTENANCE GROUP:
OPERATIONS, INSTRUMENT
AND ELECTRICAL.
 THE WISE WORDS
Who wants to look like a fool?
We may not like corrected, But neither
do we enjoy being foolish. When we’ve
made a foolish mistake, foolishness is
what we feel. And we know when we’ve
been wise. It warms us, Deeply.
May God grant us power to be wise,
because this is what keeps us at arm’s
length from WISDOM
.
 WHAT IS COMPRESSOR (AIR OR GAS)

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that

increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its
volume.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase
the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the
fluid from one place to the other through a pipe. As
gases are compressible, the compressor also
reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively
incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to
pressurize and transport liquids.
 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:
 COMPRESSOR INITIAL START-UP
1. When starting the compressor for the first time, it is extremely important
that the operators are
alert for unusual or abnormal pressures, temperatures, noises and other
conditions. Indicating
gauges and thermometers should be closely monitored during this initial
starting period.
2. Read the following break-in instructions before starting the compressor.
The procedure, which
follows, applies generally to the initial start of the unit; some modifications
to this procedure may be required when starting a particular machine.
As far as is practical, check the inlet and discharge lines for foreign
objects. Check all
line valves for proper location, flow direction and position
Operating the priming oil pump to pre-lubricate the compressor bearings
and to build up a slight pressure in the frame and running gear lubrication
system
 Manually operating each lubricator pumping unit, by pushing
down the plunger cap, to
ensure that oil is being fed into the cylinder bores and piston
rod packing. This can be
confirmed by motion of the cycle indicator pin in the
distribution blocks. This may require
the compressor to be rotated in order to manually pump each
plunger.
Walk around the machine to double check that all equipment
is ready for start-up and that
all personnel in the areas are aware that the unit will be
started.
Compressor cylinders must be depressurized to
atmospheric
pressure before barring.
 Compressor pistons will move to bottom dead-
center as an equilibrium condition due to the difference
in
piston surface area (by piston rod cross sectional area)
exposed to
the process gas pressure. Failure to depressurize the
compressor
cylinders prior to barring may result in unexpected
rollover that
can cause personal injury.
. After the compressor is started observe the frame oil pressure and check the
cooling water temperature. Watch for signs of excessive heating, unusual
noises or other abnormal conditions.
I. If everything appears normal, operate the machine continuously for 30
minutes at no load.
On engine driven units, the engine speed can be varied from idle to mid-
range speed during this period.
Never operate any compressor at maximum speed with no load.
The piston rod load may be exceeded at this condition.
At the end of the 30-minute period, if no problems are identified, the
compressor is ready
to purge and load for the operation and service that the unit is intended for.
When placing
the unit in service, pay particular attention to the break-in considerations that
are given in the following instructions.
NOTE
Verification of proper bore lubrication is not final until the bore has been
checked after the unit has been shut down under load. Lubrication rates
vary depending on load conditions.
 BREAK-IN AND OPERATION
1. The normal procedure for “breaking-in” a new
compressor involves several short runs at
gradually increasing speed and load. The type of
driver and the particular operating conditions
will dictate the break-in requirements and
procedures.
Compressor cylinders should be set up
according to performance
data sheets before loading.
2. Sometime during the break-in period, while the unit is not in
operation, tighten the cylinder
mounting flange nuts, packing gland nuts and all other exposed
nuts and bolts. When first
subjected to full load and temperature conditions, gasket
material will crush; if joints are not
tightened up at this time, oil, water, or gas leaks may start later
or stud breakage may occur.
Check all foundation bolts to ensure they are tight. Tightening
requirements are given in GENERAL DATA &
SPECIFICATIONS.
3. Because of the wide range of operating conditions, it is not
practical to give specific break-in
recommendations for the cylinders. The instructions in
MAINTENANCE are general
and should be modified as required to suit a particular situation.
 SUGGESTED ROUTINE STARTING PRACTICES
The routine starting procedure, which follows, is for a typical
compressor equipped for manual
starting. Some modifications to this procedure may be
required to suit a particular compressor
and drive arrangement however, it is important that a
standard starting sequence be established and followed
consistently by the operators,
1.Check the oil level in the frame sump and add oil as
required to bring the level to the mark on the
oil level gauge.
2. Operate the priming oil pump to pre-lubricate the
compressor bearings and to build up a slight
pressure in the frame and running gear lubrication system.
 ROUTINE STOPPING
1. When the compressor drive is an engine, it should be
slowed to idle speed.
Do not operate the compressor at a speed less than 500
750RPM.
2. Unload the compressor by slowly opening the bypass
valve. A standard unloading procedure
should be set up for each compressor application as they
may not all be manual.
NOTE
During normal operations cylinder o-rings may become
saturated with
gas, especially at pressures above 1000 PSIG. When a
compressor is
blown down too rapidly, the o-rings may blister due to the
rapid escape
of the gas from the o-rings. This is known as explosive
decompression.
 To avoid this, a compressor should be blown down at a
moderate rate
allowing the gas to escape the o-rings without blistering. If
this situation
should arise, consult your nearest Dresser-Rand
(Distributor) Vendor.
3. Allow the compressor to operate at idle speed at no load
for several minutes to cool.
4. Stop the driver according to the manufacturer’s
instructions.
5. Prepare the compressor so that it can be restarted on
short notice.
 EMERGENCY OR NON-SCHEDULED SHUTDOWN
1. If any emergency occurs requiring immediate shutdown of
the compressor, the compressor Can be shut down under
load.
In the event of an automatic safety shutdown, the operator
should immediately check to find the
cause of the shutdown. If the problem is not readily
apparent, the operator should relieve the
system of pressure before making a more thorough
examination.
3. If it appears that the compressor will not be operating
again within ten minutes, turn off the
Water flow to the cooler and cylinders.
The operator must ensure that the driver will not start by
grounding the ignition and closing the fuel gas valve on
Engine driven units or by ensuring that the power cannot
Be turned on with electric motor driven units, before
barring the unit over.
1. If the compressor is to be shut down for less than a month,
the manual frame oil priming pump
and the cylinder lubricator pumps should be operated every
two (2) weeks and the unit barred
one and a quarter revolution.
2. If the compressor is to be shutdown more than a month,
the compressor frame and cylinders should be preserved.
3. Refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations for the
driver and other accessory equipment
when planning an extended shutdown of these items.
 ROUTINE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
The compressor is designed and built for long periods of
continuous full-load operation and
should be equipped with automatic safety switches to shut it
down in case of low frame oil pressure,
vibration, or lack of cylinder lubrication. It can be equipped
with additional safety devices to obtain
practically any degree of protection desired.
When the unit is first placed in operation and the machine is
operating at normal speed and load
and with stable operating pressures and temperatures, all
safety alarm and shutdown controls
should be carefully checked for correct operation. Never
disconnect the safety shutdown devices and allow the unit to
run unprotected.
 Operation and Troubleshooting
Every compressor requires a certain amount of supervision
and care if it is to give continued
satisfactory performance and long service life. A time
schedule of duties for the operator must be
subject to alteration by experience to fit the actual conditions.
The following minimum schedule is
suggested based on continuous duty of 720 hours per month
NOTE
The time schedule of routine inspections and maintenance
for the compressor must be used in conjunction with the
schedule and duties recommended by the driver manufacturer.
This also applied to other accessory equipment
 Daily Checks
1. Check the oil level in the frame sump and add oil as required to maintain
the level at the line on
the oil level gauge. Check that the oil tank (if so equipped) is filled.
2. Check the oil level in the lubricator drive box and add as necessary. If oil
level has short or increased,
check the pumps for leakage past the plungers. Make sure all pumping
units are working and
inspect distribution blocks for leakage, indicator pins “popped up”, or other
problems.
3. Keep an hourly log of all gas temperatures, water temperatures and
gauge pressures. One of
the principal means of keeping track of the physical condition of a
compressor and its equipment
is by these hourly readings. Watch carefully for any marked changes which
indicate further
attention is warranted. Use inter-stage pressures and temperatures to
detect abnormal
conditions. A decrease in the inter-stage pressure and temperature means
that the lower pressure cylinder has reduced capacity.
 . An increase in inter-stage pressure and temperature
means that the next higher stage cylinder has reduced capacity. These
effects can be attributed to leaking valves, worn piston rings or broken
parts.
4. If separators are used in the compressor system, a schedule must be
established whereby
They are periodically drained to prevent a liquid carryover into the
compressor cylinders, which
Can cause serious damage. If automatic drains are furnished, check them
for proper operation
and to be sure that no liquid has accumulated in the level gauge.
NOTE
In every case, because of variable operating conditions, the operator
should establish the frequency of draining off the various drains. This
will be determined by the amount of liquid that collects at each point.
5. Listen for any unusual noises while the machine is operating. These
should be investigated immediately.
6. Drain all low points in the discharge piping.
7. Keep the exterior of the compressor and the compressor room floor
clean
 Weekly
1. One week after start up check fasteners for joints with
gaskets and all cylinder frame bolting.
Take note of any fasteners that have loosened any pay close
attention to these fasteners;
increase periodic checking of those fasteners.
2. Inspect all loaded joints for motion across the joint during
operation. Tighten as required.
3. After the first week, check the run-out of the compressor
piston rods. Make sure the piston rod
Is not scored. Check every three months thereafter.
4. Check scraper packing, piston rod packing and distance
piece vents for excessive blow-by
and / or oil leakage.
 Monthly (ALL WEEKLY checks plus:)
1. Take a sample of the frame oil for analysis. Compare the
analysis to one made on a fresh
sample straight from the drum. Change oil and filter per
analysis or compressor manufacturer's
recommendations.
2. Lubricate clearance packing grease and check for
free motion by moving the pocket in and out with the unit not
operating.
3. Check all safety shutdowns and operation of loading and
unloading devices for proper operation.
4. Check crankshaft breather and clean or replace as
needed.
5. Clean the lubricator reservoir and pumping units as
necessary or according to the
manufacturer’s instructions.
 . Every three Months (ALL WEEKLY and MONTHLY checks plus:)
1. Check the crosshead-to-guide clearance by feeler gauge. Check the run
out of the compressor piston rods.
2. The frame lubricating oil should be changed after 2000 to 4000
operating hours or as monthly
analysis indicates. Always clean the filter housing and install new filter
elements when the oil is changed.
NOTE
When the compressor is being operated in an extremely dirty atmosphere,
or where it is installed outdoors, operated intermittently, handling foul gas
In the cylinders, or operating with high oil temperatures in a very hot
atmosphere, it may be necessary to change the oil more often. Most
reputable oil companies offer laboratory analysis of oil samples, the use of
this type service is recommended.
3. Check the compressor piston rings and piston rod for wear and the
cylinder bore for scoring and remove any accumulation of foreign material
 . Replace piston rings if they are worn to their limit.
For checking the wear rate of, or renewing, the piston and
rider rings.
4. Check the accuracy of compressor pressure gauges on a
dead weight tester; recalibrate them as required.
Remove all inlet and discharge valves; clean and inspect the
valves for excessive wear and
broken parts. Lap seats and guards. Refer to the compressor
cylinder instructions.
6. Clean the separator sight glasses (if so equipped).
7. Inspect drive shaft seal (if so equipped) and replace if
required.
8. Check anchor bolts for tightness. Tighten as required to
the torque valves.
9. Inspect drive coupling; tighten as required.
 . Every Six Months (ALL QUARTERLY checks plus:)
1. Check crankshaft end play.
2. Check piston end clearances.
3. Remove, clean and inspect the piston rod pressure
packing rings and oil scraper; renew the rings as required.
Annually (ALL SIX MONTH checks plus:)
1. Check all running gear clearances and compare to
benchmark readings. If a change is detected,
disassemble and inspect those affected parts.
2. Clean and flush the oil cooler and any other heat
exchanger supplied.
3. Remove the compressor pistons and inspect the rings.
Record cylinder bore diameters.
Inspections of this nature will indicate the replacement
schedule for parts that are subject to wear.
4. Safety valves used in the compressor gas system
should have their settings tested at lest once a
year, and more often under extreme conditions, by a
hydraulic test.
5. Examine any scrubbers, bottles, dampers and
similar equipment that may be used in the
compressor system for accumulation of dirt, rust and
other foreign material.
6. Visually inspect the packing cups; re-lap as
required.
7. Remove and inspect main bearings and
connecting rod bearings.
TROUBLE PROPERBLY REMEDIES
CAUSES
1. Loose, worn main, crankpin 1. Check clearances and
FRAME KNOCKS or crosshead bearings. replace bearings accordingly.
2. Low oil pressure.
2. Increase oil pressure; repair
3. Cold oil.
4. Incorrect oil.
leaks.
5. Knock is actually from 3. Warm oil before loading unit
cylinder. reduce coolant supply to oil
1. Power supply failure. cooler.
(Motor Drive Only) 4. Use proper oil per
COMPRESSOR WILL 2. Switch gear or starting panel.
specifications.
NOT START (Motor Drive Only)
5. Tighten piston nut, etc. refer
3. Oil pressure permissive to
start switch. to “Noise in Cylinder”.
4. Control panel 1. Loose, worn main, 1. Restore power supply. 2.
crankpin Check circuitry, interlocks,
or crosshead bearings. relays. See vendor literature.
2. Low oil pressure.
3. Check oil pressure at header
3. Cold oil.
using aux. pump; adjust or
4. Incorrect oil.
5. Knock is actually from replace switch.
cylinder. 4. Check electrical connections
1. Power supply failure. and settings.
(Motor Drive Only) 5. Unload cylinders.
2. Switch gear or starting panel. 6. Unblock to allow rotation.
CRANKSHAFT OIL (Motor Drive Only)
7. Disengage barring rig or lock.
SEAL LEAKS 3. Oil pressure permissive to
TROUBLE PROPERBLY CAUSES REMEDIES

SCRAPER 1. Worn scraper rings. 1. Replace rings.

2. Scraper rings incorrectly 2. Assemble per Instruction
LEAKAGE Book.
assembled.
3. Replace piston rod.
3. Worn or scored piston rod. 4. Replace rings
4. Ring side clearance 1. Replace worn oil pump.
Excessive 1a. Oil Level too low in sump.
1. Oil pump cavitation. 2. Reduce oil level in sump.
2. Oil foaming from rotating 3. Utilize frame oil immersion
heater or steam-trace piping.
LOW OIL parts hitting oil surface.
4. Replace elements; clean filter
3. Cold oil.
PRESSURE can.
4. Dirty oil filter. 5. Set to specifications.
5. Oil pressure valve (PCV) 6. Replace valve.
incorrectly set. 7. Replace Gauge.
6. Low relief valve setting. 8. Clean suction strainer

7. Defective gauge.
8. Plugged sump suction
Strainer
NOISE IN CYLINDER 1. Loose piston 1. Tighten piston assembly to
2. Piston hitting outer head or piston rod per instructions.
frame head. 2. Adjust end clearance to
3. Loose crosshead jam nut. specifications.
4. Broken or leaking valve. 3. Tighten jam nut.
5. Piston rings broken. 4. Repair or replace valves.
6. Liquids 5. Replace piston rings.
1. Lubrication failure. 6. Remove liquids. 1. Replace
PACKING lubrication check
2. Improper lube oil or feed
OVERHEATING rate. valve or lubricator pump.
3. Insufficient cooling. 2. Use correct oil; increase feed
(Especially with water-cooled rate.
packing.) 3. Clean coolant passages,
4. Inadequate side clearance install water filter, increase
supply pressure or rate.
Reduce coolant temperature at
inlet..
4. Replace packing rings
 1. Worn packing rings. 1. Replace packing rings.
2. Improper lube oil or lube oil 2. Use correct oil or increase feed
rate..
feed rate. (Blue Hot) 3. Clean packing, piping and
PACKING LEAKAGE 3. Dirt in packing. ensure gas supply is clean.
4. Pressure increase too fast. 4. Reduce pressure and
AND/OR BLOWBY 5. Rings incorrectly assembled. increase at lower rate.
6. Improper end or side 5. Reassemble per Instruction book.
6. Check and adjust clearances.
Clearance
7. Unlock and provide low-point
7. Packing vent plugged. drains.
8. Scored piston rod. 8. Replace piston rod.
9. Excessive rod run-out 9. Check crosshead clearances
and piston
1. Too much cylinder lube oil. 1. Adjust supply rate.
2. Wrong cylinder lube oil, too 2. Use correct oil for application.
light; high carbon residue. See chart in Instruction
EXCESSIVE 3. Oil carryover from inlet or Manual.
CARBON ON previous stage. 3. Install separator/drain
4. Broken or leaking valves; system.
VALVES high temperature. 4. Replace or repair valves.
5. Excessive pressure ratio 5. Clean intercoolers; valves.
across cylinder, high Look for failed valve in
temperature cylinder, upstream or
downstream
 1. Excessive ratio across 1. Replace leaking inlet valves
cylinder. Rings leaking on or piston rings.
next higher stage. 2. Clean intercooler or piping;
HIGH DISCHARGE 2. Fouled intercooler or piping. reduce lube feed rate.
3. Leaking discharge valves or 3. Repair/replace parts as
TEMPERATURE piston rings. necessary.
4. High inlet gas temperature. 4. Clean intercooler.
5. Fouled cylinder water 5. Clean water jackets.
jackets. 6. Use correct lube oil and
6. Improper cylinder lube oil or correct the feed rate.
lube feed rate.

1. Faulty relief valve. 1. Test valve and reset

RELIEF VALVE 2. Leaking inlet valves or piston
POPPING rings on next higher stage.
per
3. Obstruction, blind flange or manufacturer’s
valve closed in discharge line. instructions.
1. Make certain that correct parts are
being used. In many 2. Repair/replace
cases, inlet springs are lighter than defective
discharge springs.
VALVE FAILURE – 2. Investigate the possibility of liquid parts.
carryover.
INLET VALVES 3. Relieve obstruction;
3. Consider the possibility of intake
pulsations. open
4. Flutter – Incorrect spring action
Valve.
• INTRODUCING POWER GENERATION

• Gas Turbine

• THE COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINE

• DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

AND DIESEL ENGINES.

• TROUBLE SHOOTING.

• MAINTENANCE.

• FLM (Front Line Maintenance) .

Any of various devices that convert the energy in a stream of fluid into
mechanical energy by passing the stream through a system of fixed and
moving fanlike blades and causing the latter to rotate.
A turbine looks like a large wheel with many small radiating blades
around its rim. There are four broad classes of turbine: water (hydraulic),
steam, wind, and gas. The most important application of the first three is
the generation of electricity.

Turbine any of various types of machine in which the kinetic energy of a

moving fluid is converted into mechanical energy by causing a bladed
rotor to rotate. The moving fluid may be water, steam, air, or combustion
products of a fuel.

Turbine, a prime mover characterized by purely rotational motion of the

operating element—rotor—and a continuous process that changes the
kinetic energy of a supplied working fluid—for example, steam, gas, wind
or water—into mechanical energy.
 CONT.
Industrial steam and gas turbines are used to drive electric power
generators (turbine generators), centrifugal compressors and blast
blowers (turbocompressors and turboblowers), and feed, fuel, and oil
pumps (turbine pumps). Steam and gas turbine engines are used as the
main engines on ships. Gas turbines are also used as aircraft engines
(turboprop and turbojet engines) and, in certain cases, in locomotives
(gas-turbine locomotives) and special automobiles that require especially
powerful engines. Hydroturbines are built only as industrial turbines for
driving low-speed electric power generators (hydroelectric generators) in
hydroelectric power plants.
As of 1976, the maximum power of turbines was 1,300 megawatts (MW)
for steam turbines, 100 MW for gas turbines, and over 600 MW for
hydroturbine units. Because of their economy, compactness, reliability,
and possibility of achieving high unit power, turbines have practically
replaced piston steam engines in present-day power engineering
throughout the world.
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal
combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a
downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed
with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor,
combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The products of the
combustion are forced into the turbine section. There, the high velocity
and volume of the gas flow is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's
blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and, for some
turbines, drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the
turbine comes from the reduction in the temperature and pressure of the
exhaust gas.
Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air or
thrust or any combination of these and used to power aircraft, trains,
ships, generators, or even tanks.
• COMPRESSION IGNITION & SPARK – IGNITION ENGINES

• The compression ignition is commonly called the diesel engine.

When a gas is compressed, its temperature rises; the more it is
compressed the hotter it gets or becomes, and the more quickly it is
compressed the less chance is there for the heat to escape.

• In the diesel engine, air is drawn into the cylinder where it is

compressed, and the liquid fuel is then injected. The high
temperature of the compressed air raises the fuel to its self-ignition
temperature so that its burns, thereby increasing the pressure still
further and providing power. The compression ratio in a diesel
engine is much higher than that in a spark-ignition engine in order to
attain the self-ignition temperature of the fuel.
• THE COMPRESSION PROCESS

• The sequence of events that occur when fuel is sprayed into the
cylinder may be considered as happening in three separate phases.
In the initial phase the fuel is admitted but does not burn; some of
the fuel evaporates, and the vapour is raised to its self-ignition
temperature.
• In the second phase, rapid combustion occurs as the flame spreads,
and there is a sharp rise in pressure.
• Finally, in the third phase, the rest of the charge burns as it enters
the combustion chamber, and this maintains or increases the
pressure.
• In the small high-speed automotive engine these three stages may
occur in about one thousandth of a second.
• Trouble Shooting: When an engine develops a
faults, it is not always manifested at its source. Example:
If the white metal of a connecting rod bearing suddenly
starts to wear, the effect “Knocking” – would be
immediately noticeable and the engine would be stopped
by the lubricating oil pressure safety switch. By closed
inspection it would soon be found that a bearing had
failed. It would be unlikely however, that the trouble
would be cured simply by renewing the bearing
concerned; renewal would suffice if the bearing had
actually been faulty by normal wear and tear, but not if
the cause of the failure lay elsewhere, as it probably
would.
 Trouble shooting cont.
• It would therefore, be necessary to find what had
caused the bearing failure in the first place before
attempting to replace it or them.
• Always look for the primary cause of any operating
trouble. It must be firmly understood however, that the
art of trouble shooting does not solely depend on
knowledge alone, but to a large extent on experience in,
and with, the actual equipment under examination. It
must also be borne in mind that trouble shooting consists
of eliminating possibilities until the actual trouble is
found. One would be well advised to look for the logical
rather than the unusual possibilities.
• Floor open for interaction on Problem solving, Diesel
engine and Trouble shooting, Gas engine.