FREQUENCY

DISRIBTION
& GRAPHS
Frequency Distribution
Frequency distribution is the organization of
data in table form, using classes and frequencies.

 Classes
Each raw data value is placed into a quantitative or
qualitative category called the class.

 Frequencies
The frequency of the class then is the number of data
values contained in a specific class.
 TWO TYPES OF FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION MOST OFTENLY USED

 Categorical Frequency Distribution

The categorical frequency distribution is used for data that
can be placed in specific categories, such as nominal- or
ordinal-level data.
 Grouped Frequency Data
When the range of data is large, the data must be grouped
into classes that are more than one unit in width, in what is
called a grouped frequency distribution.
Categorical Frequency
Distributions
DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD TYPES
Twenty-five army inductees were given a blood test to determine
their blood type. The data set is:

A B B AB O
O O B AB B
B B O A O
A O O O AB
AB A O B A
STEP 1: Make a table as shown.

A B C D
Class Tally Frequency Percent
A
B
O
AB
STEP 2: Tally the data and place the results in column B.
STEP 3: Count the tallies and place the results in column C.

A B C D
Class Tally Frequency Percent
A llll 5
B llll ll 7
O llll llll 9
AB llll 4
STEP 4: Find the percentage of values in each class by using
the formula:
% = (f / n) x 100%
Where f = frequency of the class and n = number of values.
Example: [for type A blood]
% = (5 / 25) x 100% = 20%
Percentages are not usually part of a frequency distribution,
but they can be added since they are used in certain types of
graphs such as pie graphs. Also, the decimal equivalent of a
percent is called a relative frequency.
STEP 5: Find the totals for columns C (frequency) and D
(percent). The completed table is shown.
Grouped frequency
distributions
Distribution of Number of Hours That Boat Batteries Lasted

Class Class
Limits Boundaries Tally Frequency
24 – 30 23.5 – 30.5 lll 3
31 – 37 30.5 – 37.5 l 1
38 – 44 37.5 – 44.5 llll 5
45 – 51 44.5 – 51.5 llll llll 9
52 – 58 51.5 – 58.5 llll l 6
59 – 65 58.5 – 65.5 l 1
25
RECORD HIGH TEMPERATURES
These data represents the record high temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit for each of the 50 states.

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114
 STEP 1: Determine the classes.
  Find the highest and lowest value:
H = 134 L = 100
 Find the range:
R = 134 – 100 = 34
 Select the number of classes desired (usually between 5 and 20). In this
case, 7 is arbitrarily chosen.
 Find the class width by dividing the range R by the number of classes:
Width = R / number of classes = 34 / 7 = 4.9
 Round the answer UP to the nearest whole number. In this case, .
 Select a starting point for the lowest class limit.
  
Round the answer UP to the nearest whole number. In this
case, .
 Select a starting point for the lowest class limit. Add the width
to the lowest score taken as the starting point to get the lower
limit of the next class. Keep adding until there are 7 classes.
 Subtract one unit from the lower limit of the second class to
get the upper limit of the first class. Then add the width to
each upper limit to get all the upper limits.
 Find the class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from each lower
class limit and adding 0.5 to each upper class limit
STEP 2: Tally the data.
STEP 3: Find the numerical frequencies from the tallies.
Class Class
Limits Boundaries Tally Frequency
100 – 104 99.5 – 104.5 ll 2
105 – 109 104.5 – 109.5 llll lll 8
110 – 114 109.5 – 114.5 llll llll llll lll 18
115 – 119 114.5 – 119.5 llll llll lll 13
120 – 124 119.5 – 124.5 llll ll 7
125 – 129 124.5 – 129.5 l 1
130 – 134 129.5 – 134.5 l 1
 HISTOGRAMS,
FREQUENCY POLIGONS,
AND OGIVES
The Histogram

The Histogram is a graph that displays the data by using

contiguous vertical bars (unless the frequency of the class is 0)
of various heights to represent the frequencies of the classes.
RECORD HIGH TEMPERATURES
Construct a histogram to represent the data shown for the record high
temperatures for each of the 50 states. (see previous example)

Class Boundaries Frequency

99.5 – 104.5 2
104.5 – 109.5 8
109.5 – 114.5 18
114.5 – 119.5 13
119.5 – 124.5 7
124.5 – 129.5 1
129.5 – 134.5 1
STEP 1: Draw and label the x and y axes. The x axis is always the
horizontal axis, and the y axis is always the vertical axis.

STEP 2: Represent the frequency on the y axis and the class

boundaries on the x axis.

STEP 3: Using the frequencies as the heights, draw vertical bars

for each class.
 Record High Temperatures
20

18

16

14 99.5
104.5
FREQUENCY

12
114.5
10
119.5
8 124.5

6 129.5
134.5
4

0
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREE FAHRENHEIT
The Frequency Polygon

The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using

lines that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the
midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points.
RECORD HIGH TEMPERATURES
Using the frequency distribution of the previous example, construct a
frequency polygon.
STEP 1: Find the midpoint of each class. Recall that the midpoints are
found by adding the upper and lower boundaries and dividing by 2:
(99.5 +104.5)/ 2 = 102 (104.5 + 109.5) / 2 = 107
and so on. The midpoints are:
Class Boundaries Midpoints Frequency
99.5 – 104.5 102 2
104.5 – 109.5 107 8
109.5 – 114.5 112 18
114.5 – 119.5 117 13
119.5 – 124.5 122 7
124.5 – 129.5 127 1
129.5 – 134.5 132 1
STEP 2: Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the
midpoint of each class, and the use a suitable scale on the y
axis for the frequencies.

STEP 3: Using the midpoints for the x values and the

frequencies as the y values, plot the points.

STEP 4: Connect the adjacent points with line segments. Draw

a line back to the x axis at the beginning and end of the graph,
at the same distance that previous and next midpoints would be
located.
RECORD HIGH TEMPERATURES

20
18
16
14
FREQUENCY

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
102 107 112 117 122 127 132

TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

The Ogive

The ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative

frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution.
RECORD HIGH TEMPERATURES
Construct an ogive for the frequency distribution described in the previous
example.
STEP 1: Find the cumulative frequency for each class. The values are found by
adding the frequencies of the classes less than or equal to the upper class boundary
of a specific class.
0+2=2 ; 0 + 2 + 8 = 10 ; 0 + 2 + 8 +18 = 28 ; etc…
Cumulative frequency
Less than 99.5 0
Less than 104.5 2
Less than 109.5 10
Less than 114.5 28
Less than 119.5 41
Less than 124.5 48
Less than 129.5 49
Less than 134.5 50
STEP 2: Draw the x and y axes. Label the x axis with the class boundaries.
Use an appropriate scale for the y axis to represent the cumulative
frequencies.

STEP 3: Plot the cumulative frequency at each upper class boundary.

Upper boundaries are used since the cumulative frequencies represent the
number of data values accumulated up to the upper boundary of each class.

STEP 4: Starting with the first upper class boundary, 104.5, connect
adjacent points with line segments. Then extend the graph to the first lower
class boundary, 99.5, on the x axis.
 RECORD HIGH TEMPERATURE

55
50
45
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
99.5 104.5 109.5 114.5 119.5 124.5 129.5 134.5

TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

Relative Frequency Graphs

The histogram, frequency polygon, and the ogive shown previously

were constructed by using frequencies in terms of the raw data. These
distributions can be converted to distributions using proportions
instead of raw data frequencies. These types of graphs are called
relative frequency graphs.
Graphs of relative frequencies instead of frequencies are used when
the proportion of data values that fall into a given class is more
important than the actual number of data values that fall into that class.
MILES RUN PER WEEK
Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive using relative
frequencies for the distribution of the miles that 20 randomly selected
runners ran during a given week.

Class Boundaries Frequency

5.5 – 10.5 1
10.5 – 15.5 2
15.5 – 20.5 3
20.5 – 25.5 5
25.5 – 30.5 4
30.5 – 35.5 3
35.5 – 40.5 2
20
STEP 1: Convert each frequency to a proportion or relative
frequency by dividing the frequency for each class by the total number
of observations.
For class 5.5 – 10.5, the relative frequency is 1 / 20 = 0.05; for class
10.5 – 15.5, the relative frequency is 2 / 20 = 0.10; etc….

Class Boundaries Midpoints Relative Frequency

5.5 – 10.5 8 0.05
10.5 – 15.5 13 0.10
15.5 – 20.5 18 0.15
20.5 – 25.5 23 0.25
25.5 – 30.5 28 0.20
30.5 – 35.5 33 0.15
35.5 – 40.5 38 0.10
1.00
STEP 2: Find the cumulative relative frequencies. To do this, add the
frequency in each class to the total frequency of the preceding class.
0 + 0.05 = 0.05 ; 0.05 + 0.10 = 0.15 ; 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.30 ; etc…

Cumulative Relative
Cumulative Frequency Frequency
Less than 5.5 0 0.00
Less than 10.5 1 0.05
Less than 15.5 3 0.15
Less than 20.5 6 0.30
Less than 25.5 11 0.55
Less than 30.5 15 0.75
Less than 35.5 18 0.90
Less than 40.5 20 1.00
STEP 3: Draw each graph. For the histogram and ogive, use the class
boundaries along the x axis. For the frequency polygon, use the midpoints on
the x axis. The scale on the y axis uses proportions.

HISTOGRAM FOR RUNNERS’ MILES

0.3

0.25
RELATIVE FREQUENCY

5.5
0.2 10.5
15.5
0.15 20.5
25.5
30.5
0.1
40.5

0.05

MILES
 FREQUENCY POLYGON FOR RUNNERS’ MILES
0.3

0.25
RELATIVE FREQUENCIES

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
8 13 18 23 28 33 38

MILES
 OGIVE FOR RUNNERS’ MILES
1.2

CUMULATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
5.5 10.5 15.5 20.5 25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5

MILES
 OTHER
TYPES OF GRAPHS
Bar Graphs

A bar graph represents the data by using vertical or

horizontal bars whose heights or lengths represent the
frequencies of the data.
When the data are qualitative or categorical, bar graphs can
be used to represent the data. A bar graph can be drawn using
either horizontal or vertical bars.
 STEP 1: Draw and label the x and y axes. For the horizontal
bar graph place the frequency scale on the x axis, and for the
vertical bar graph place the frequency scale on the y axis.

STEP 2: Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies.

AVERAGE AMOUNT SPENT
FIRST-YEAR COLLEGE STUDENT SPENDING 800
700

PRICE IN DOLLARS
Electronics
600

Dorm Décor 500

400
Clothing 300
200
Shoes
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
0
PRICE IN DOLLARS
Shoes Clothing Dorm Décor Electronics
Pareto Charts

A pareto chart is used to represent a frequency distribution

for a categorical variable, and the frequencies are displayed
by the heights of vertical bars, which arranged in order from
highest to lowest.
HOMELESS PEOPLE
The data shown here consist of the number of homeless people for a
sample of selected cities. Construct and analyse a pareto chart for the
data.

City Number
Atlanta 6832
Baltimore 2904
Chicago 6680
St. Louis 1485
Washington 5518
STEP 1: Arrange the data from the largest to smallest
according to the frequencies.

Cities Number
Atlanta 6832
Chicago 6680
Washington 5518
Baltimore 2904
St. Louis 1485

STEP 2: Draw and label the x and y axes.

STEP 3: Draw the bars corresponding to the frequencies.
 Number of Homeless People for Large Cities
8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
Atlanta Chicago Washington Baltimore St. Louis
The Time Series Graph

 A time series graph represents data that occur over a

specific period of time.
 When data are collected over a period of time, they can be
presented by a time series graph.
Workplace Homicides
The number of homicides that occurred in the workplace for the
years 2003 to 2008 is shown. Draw and analyse a time series graph
for the data.

Year ’03 ’04 ’05 ’06 ’07 ’08

Number 632 559 567 540 628 517
STEP 1: Draw and label the x and y axes.
STEP 2: Label the x axis for years and y axis for the number.
STEP 3: Plot each point according to the table.

STEP 4: Draw line segments connecting adjacent points. Do

not try to fit a smooth curve through the data points.
 Workplace Homicides
700

Number
650

600

550

500
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Year
Compound Time Series Graph

 Two or more data sets can be compared on the

same graph is called a compound time series
graph if two or more lines are used.
 Elderly in the U.S. Labor For
40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008

Year
Pie Graph
 A Pie Graph is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges
according to the percentage of frequency in each category of
the distribution
 Pie graphs are used extensively in statistics. The purpose of
the pie graph is to show the relationships of the parts to the
whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections.
Percentages or proportions can be used. The variable is
nominal or categorical
Super Bowl Snack Foods
 This frequency distribution shows the number of pounds
of each snacks food eaten during the Super Bowl.
Construct a pie graph for the data.

Snacks Pounds (Frequency)

Potato Chips 11.2 million
Tortilla Chips 8.2 million
Pretzels 4.3 million
Popcorn 3.8 million
Snack nuts 2.5 million
Total n = 30.0 million
 
STEP 1: Since there are 360 degree in a circle, the frequency for each class must be
converted into a proportional part of the circle. This conversion is done by using the formula
Degrees =
where f = frequency for each class and n = sum of the frequencies. Hence, the following
conversions are obtained. The degrees should sum to 360

Potato Chips

Tortilla Chips

Pretzels

Popcorn

Snack nuts
Total 360
 Step 2: Each frequency must also be converted to
percentage by using the formula
%=
  Hence,the following percentages are obtained. The percentages
should sum to 100%.
Potato Chips
Tortilla Chips
Pretzels

Popcorn 12.7%

Snack nuts
Total 100%
Step 3: Next, using a protractor and a compass, draw the graph using the appropriate degree
measures found in step 1, and label each section with the name and percentages, as shown
below

Super Bowl Snacks

Snack nuts;
27.33%
Potato Chips ;
37.34%

Popcorn; 12.71% Tortilla Chips;

8.31%
Pretzel; 14.31%
Misleading Graphs
 Stem and Leaf Plots
 A Stem and Leaf Plot is a data plot that uses part
of the data value as the stem and part of the data
value as the leaf to form groups or classes
 The Stem and Leaf Plot is a method of organizing
data and is a combination of sorting and graphing.
It has the advantage over a grouped frequency
distribution of retaining the actual data while
showing them in graphical form.
Example:
At an outpatient testing center, the number of
cardiograms performed each day for 20 days is shown.
Construct a stem and leaf plot for the data.

25 31 20 32 13
14 43 02 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45
Step 1: Arrange the data in order:

02, 13, 14, 20, 23, 25, 31, 32, 32,

32, 32, 33, 36, 43, 44, 44, 45, 51,
52, 57

Note: Arranging the data in order is not essential and can be

cumbersome when data set is large; however, it is helpful in
constructing a stem and leaf plot. The leaves in the final
stem and leaf plot should be arranged in order.
Step 2: Separate the data to the first digit, as shown.

02 13, 14 20, 23, 31, 32, 32, 32, 32, 33,

43, 44, 44, 25, 51, 36
45 52, 57

Step 3: A display can be made by using the leading digit

as the leaf. For example, for the value 32, the leading digit,
3, is the stem and the trailing digit, 2, is the leaf.
Leading digit (stem) Trailing Digit (leaf)
0 2
1 34
2 035
3 1222236
4 3445
5 127