Chapter 1
Fundamental Solid-
State Principles
Pictures are redrawn (with some modifications) from
Introductory Electronic Devices and Circuits
By
Robert T. Paynter
1
Objectives (1)
• Describe the relationship between the number of
valence electrons and conductivity properties.
• Describe the relationship between conduction and
temperature.
• Contrast trivalent and pentavalent elements.
• List the similarities and differences between n-
type and p-type semiconductors.
• Describe diffusion current.
• Describe how a depletion layer is formed around
a pn junction.
2
Objectives (2)
• Explain the source of barrier potential, and list
the barrier potential values for Si and Ge.
• Define bias.
• Desbribe the different methods of forward and
reverse biasing a pn junction.
• Explain why Si is used more commonly than Ge
in the production of solid state devices.
3
Fig. 1.1 Bohr Model of the atom.
Orbital shells
M
L
K
Valence shell
(a) (b)
Orbital shells are identified using the letters K through Q.
4
Relationship between Valence
Electrons and Conductivity
The conductivity decreases with an increase
in the number of valence electrons.
1 valence electron nearly perfect conductor
8 valence electrons insulator
(Max = 8)
5
Fig. 1.2 Semiconductor atoms.
4 valence electrons semiconductor
Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge) Carbon (C)
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Electrons in Orbital Shells
• Electrons travels only in orbital shells.
• Each orbital shells relates to a specific energy
range.
• An electron can jump from one orbital shell to
another that has higher energy level if the
electron absorbs energy equal to the energy
difference between the two orbital shells.
• After jumping to a higher energy shell, the
electron will eventually give up the energy and
return to a lower-energy shell.
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Fig. 1.3 Silicon energy gaps and
levels.
Energy
Conduction band e4 = 1.8 eV
Valence
Energy gap
band
e3 = 0.7 eV
e2
e1
1.8 eV – 0.7 eV = 1.1 eV
8
Fig. 1.4 Silicon covalent bonding.
Intrinsic (pure) silicon is
Si a very poor conductor.
Si
Si
Energy gap of Si:
Si single atom = 0.05 eV
crystal = 0.7 eV
Si
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Fig. 1.5 Generation of an
electron-hole pair.
Energy
Si Conduction band
Electrons
Si
Si Valence band
Si Holes
Si
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Conduction vs Temperature
• At room temperature, thermal energy
(hear) causes the constant creation of
electron-hole pair, with their subsequent
recombination.
• Conductivity in a semiconductor varies
directly with temperature.
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Table 1.1 Commonly used
doping elements.
Trivalent Impurities Pentavalent Impurities
(p-Type) (n-Type)
Aluminum (Al) Phosphorus (P)
Gallium (Ga) Arsenic (As)
Boron (B) Antimony (Sb)
Indium (In) Bismuth (Bi)
(Acceptor impurities) (Donor impurities)
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Fig. 1.6 n-type material and
its energy diagram.
Energy
Excess covalent
Si bond electron
Conduction band
Si Electrons
(majority carriers)
As
Si Valence band
Holes
(minority carriers)
Si
Conductivity of n-type material is increased
due to more free-electrons.
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Fig. 1.8 p-type material and
its energy diagram.
Energy
Si Covalent bond hole
Conduction band
Si Electrons
(minority carriers)
Al
Si Valence band
Holes
(majority carriers)
Si
Conductivity of p-type material is increased
due to more holes in valence band.
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Doping Density
1 impurity atom per 105 to 108 Si atoms
and about 1022 Si atoms/cm3
1017 to 1014 impurity atom/cm3
(much more than heat-rupture electrons)
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Effect of Doping on Conductivity
• At the rate 1 donor atom per 108 Si atoms, the
conductivity at 30°C is multiplied by a factor of
24,100.
• Conductivity in doping semiconductor is less
dependent on temperature.
16
Fig. 1.11 pn-junction initial
energy levels.
Junction
n p n p
Energy
Energy
Conduction band
Conduction band
Valence band
Valence band
(a) (b)
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Fig. 1.12 The forming of the
depletion layer.
n p n p
Depletion layer
Energy
Energy
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Fig. 1.13 Depletion Layer Charges.
n p
+4 +4
+4 +4
+5
Electric +3
field
+4 +4
+4 +4
Junction
Total (+) = 21 Total (+) = 19
Total (-) = 20 Total (-) = 20
Net charge = +1 Net charge = -1
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Things to Remember
• Depletion layer (or region) is the
area around a pn junction that is
depleted of charge carriers.
• Barrier potential is the natural
potential across a pn junction.
(Barrier potential is typically in the
millivolt range.)
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Depletion Layer Width vs
Junction Resistance
Depletion Junction Junction
layer width resistance current
Minimum Minimum Maximum
Maximum Maximum Minimum
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Bias
• Applying the potential (bias) to a pn
junction, we can adjust the width of the
depletion layer.
• Forward bias is a potential to reduce the
depletion layer width and junction
resistance as a result.
• Reverse bias is a potential to increase the
depletion layer width and junction
resistance as a consequence.
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Fig. 1.14 The effect of forward bias.
n p n p
V V
SW1 SW1
(a) An unbiased pn junction (b) Charge motion at the
moment SW1 is closed
n p
n p
Rn Rp
V
SW1
Rb
(c) Conduction increases as the (d) Bulk resistance
depletion layer becomes
narrower 23
Forward-biased pn junction.
A forward-biased pn junction showing the flow of
majority carriers and the voltage due to the
barrier potential across the depletion region.
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Fig. 1.15 Some forward-
biased pn junction.
+V -V
p n
n p
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Fig. 1.16 The effect of reverse bias.
n p n p
V V
SW1 SW1
(a) A conducting pn junction (b) A depletion layer forms
when there is no current
n p
V
SW1
(c) When the bias is reversed, the depletion
layer widens as charge carriers move away
from the junction
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Reverse-biased pn junction.
The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-
biased pn junction is due to the minority carriers
from thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
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Fig. 1.17 Some reverse-
biased pn junction.
+V -V
n p
p n
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Fig. 1.18 pn-junction biasing.
Forward bias Reverse bias
+V -V -V +V
p n p n
n p n p
Bias Type Junction Polarities Junction Resistance
Forward n-type is more (-) than p-type Extremely low
Reverse p-type is more (-) than n-type Extremely high
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A Final Note
Si is preferred to Ge:
• Si is more tolerant of heat.
• Germanium oxide is water soluble – make
it difficult to process.
• A Ge device allows more leakage current
than that of Si.
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Summary
• Semiconductor valence shell.
• n-type and p-type doping.
• pn junction.
• Forward and reverse bias.
• Why Si is preferred to Ge.
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