Knowledge Management

Models
 Understanding Knowledge
• a systemic and organizationally specified process for acquiring, organizing,
and communicating both tacit and explicit knowledge of employees so
that other employees may make use of it to be more effective and
productive in their work. (Alavi and Leidner, 1999)

• fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert

insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new
experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds of
knowers. In organizations, it often becomes embedded not only in
documents or repositories, but also in organization routines, processes,
and norms. (Davenport and Prusak, 2000)

• the formalization of and access to experience, knowledge and expertise

that create new capabilities, enable superior performance, encourage
innovation and enhance customer value. (Beckman, 1999)
 Knowledge Assets (KA)
Paper-based

Multimedia
Explicit = Media-based
Digitally-Indexed
Written down
Digitally-Active
Intellectual Property ©Patents
™ (sm)

Tacit = People knowledge Individuals

in People’s head

Groups
 KM “Transactions”
The bridge between the problem you’re trying to solve and the selection of which KM enabler to use.

Knowledge Required
People Media-based

Training Computer-based training

Mentorship
Semantic search
Knowledge Share Fair
People AskMe Library
Rotation Noon Seminars
Tacit Knowledge Capture

Knowledge SHARING CAPTURING

(capture & transfer) (capture & organize)
location

Computer-based training
Semantic search Archiving
Media-
based Web Sites
AskMe Library
Scanning Systems
Tacit Knowledge Capture

ACCESSING CONVERTING
(transfer & utilize) (organize & transfer)
 Phases of Knowledge Creation

Impression Interpretation Conviction Knowledge

perceiving interpreting understanding justifying

• Not a linear process.

• Each phase influences previous phases.
• Each phase is influenced by the task at hand, the objective or
purpose, the context in which this task is to be performed and
the context in which the required signals could be perceived
 Knowledge Transfer
Impression Interpretation Conviction Knowledge

Signals
perceiving interpreting understanding justifying
Sharer Receiver

• Knowledge sharer creates signals.

• Receiver has to complete all the phases of knowledge creation
• Knowledge created by the receiver need not be same as original
knowledge of sender.
• Knowledge can be shared, but not transferred.
 Unless converted, knowledge has no value
Knowledge
Knowledge Labor Value
Derivative

• Knowledge in itself has no value.

• Knowledge resides within a human being, and it cannot be
detached.
• This human being can produce knowledge derivates.
• These knowledge derivates could have value when they can be
combined with Labor.
• We can sell/trade the knowledge derivates.
• We can sell signals, but we cannot sell the knowledge from
which these signals originate.
• Therefore, knowledge production is not a linear process.
 Simple Knowledge Flow

Develop Capture

Resource
Use Knowledge
Create Knowledge

Distribute Organize

Manage Knowledge
 Process View of Knowledge Management
Capture Define the Resource Create the Resource Organize
Knowledge Knowledge
Manage the Resource

Store

Create Acquire Deploy Use

Knowledge Knowledge
Add Value

Manage Knowledge

Resource-based Customer Services

Develop Distribute
Knowledge Knowledge
 Major Knowledge Management Systems
Increasing intelligence axis

Enterprise Wide KM Systems Knowledge Work Systems Intelligent Techniques

General Purpose, Specialized workstation Tools for discovering

integrated, firm-wide and systems that enable patterns and applying
efforts to collect, store, other knowledge workers knowledge to discrete
disseminate, and use to create and discover decisions and knowledge
digital content and new knowledge domains
knowledge

•Structured knowledge •Computer-aided design •Data mining

systems (CAD) •Neural networks
•Semi-structured •3D Visualization •Expert systems
knowledge systems •Virtual Reality •Case-based reasoning
•Knowledge network •Investment workstations •Fuzzy logic
systems •Genetic algorithms
•Intelligent agents
 Goals of KM
• Manage and Locate crucial information
• Capture competitive advantages
• Avoid costs and consequences of relearning lessons
• Focus on long term than short term
• Stimulate knowledge growth and creation
• Recognize and reward knowledge reuse
 KNOWLEDGE CREATION
• KM is not a technology; it is an activity enabled by
technology and produced by people
• An alternative way of creating knowledge is via
teamwork (see Fig. 4.1)
• A team compares job experience to job outcome—
translates experience into knowledge
• Such newly acquired knowledge is carried to the next
job
• Maturation over time with a specific job turns
experience into expertise

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Knowledge Transfer Via Teams
Initial
knowledge

Outcome is
realized

Team performs
a job Outcome
compared to
action
New knowledge
reusable by same
team on next job
New experience/
Knowledge knowledge gained
captured and
codified in a
form usable by
others

Fig. 4.1
 Impediments to knowledge
sharing
Personality
Compensation Organizational
Recognition culture
Ability utilization
Creativity Vocational
Good work environment reinforcers Knowledge
Autonomy sharing
Job security
Moral values
Attitude
Advancement
Variety Company
Achievement strategies and
Independence policies
Social status Work Norms

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 Impediments to Knowledge
Sharing
• Personality
• Attitude based on mutual trust
• Vocational reinforcers
• Work norms

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 Knowledge Management Models
• Models provide a way of translating managerial activities and
guiding managerial efforts in managing knowledge in the
organizations.
• KM models have evolved over time
• Models
– Boisot’s Knowledge Category Models
– Nonaka’s Knowledge Management Model
– Hedlund and Nonaka’s Knowledge Management Model
– Skandia Intellectual Capital Model of Knowledge Management
– Demerest’s Knowledge Management Model
– Frid’s Knowledge Management Model
– Stankosky and Baldanza’s Knowledge Management Framework
– Kogut and Zander’s Knowledge Management Model
• A constant shift from categorical view to the more
complicated and complex mechanistic and socially
constructed perspective.
 NONAKA’S MODEL
• Tacit to tacit communication (socialization).
Experience among people in face-to-face meetings
• Tacit to explicit communication (externalization).
Articulation among people through dialog
• Explicit to explicit communication (communication).
Best supported by technology
• Explicit to tacit communication (internalization).
Taking explicit knowledge and deducing new ideas

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 Nonaka’s Model

TACIT TO TACIT TACIT TO EXPLICIT

(SOCIALIZATION) (EXTERNALIZATION)

E.G., TEAM MEETINGS AND E.G., DIALOG WITHIN TEAM

DISCUSSIONS ANSWER QUESTIONS

EXPLICIT TO TACIT EXPLICIT TO EXPLICIT

(INTERNALIZATION) (COMBINATION)

E.G., LEARN FROM A REPORT E.G., E-MAIL A REPORT

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 KNOWLEDGE ARCHITECTURE
• People core: Evaluate current documents
people use
• Identify knowledge centers
• The technical core: The total technology
required to operate the knowledge
environment
People Content

Technology

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 Technical Layer of the KM System
1 User Interface
(Web browser software installed on each user’s PC)

Authorized access control

2 (e.g., security, passwords, firewalls, authentication)

Collaborative intelligence and filtering

3 (intelligent agents, network mining, customization, personalization)

Knowledge-enabling applications
4 (customized applications, skills directories, videoconferencing, decision support systems,
group decision support systems tools)

Transport
5 (e-mail, Internet/Web site, TCP/IP protocol to manage traffic flow)

Middleware
6 (specialized software for network management, security, etc.)

The Physical Layer

(repositories, cables)
7

Databases Legacy applications

(e.g., payroll) Groupware Data warehousing
(document exchange, (data cleansing,
collaboration) data mining) 20
 The User Interface Layer
• Tacit knowledge should be made available
face-to-face, e-mail, or by other media
• User interface design focuses on consistency,
relevancy, visual clarity, navigation, and
usability

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 Technical Access Layer
• Intranet: The internal network of
communication systems modified around the
Internet
• Extranet: An intranet with extensions that
allow clearly identified customers or suppliers
to reach company-related technical
educational information (see Figure 4.9)

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Technical Access Layer

Internet Intranet
Extranet
Cloud Company employees
Suppliers
Vendors
Partners
PUBLIC Customers
AT LARGE

•News/events •Human resource • Product information

information
•Marketing •Sales information
•Production
•E-commerce •Collaboration/cooperat
information
•Careers ion
•Sales information
•Strategic plans
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 Features/Limitations of Firewalls
Protects against:
• E-mail services known to be problems
• Unauthorized interactive log-ins from outside firm
• Undesirable material coming in/leaving firm
• Unauthorized sensitive info. leaving firm
Limitations include:
• Attacks that do not go through the firewall
• Weak security policies
• Viruses on floppy disks
• Traitors or disgruntled employees
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 Collaborative Intelligence and
Filtering Layer (Layer 3)
• Provides personalized views based on stored
knowledge
• Reduces search time for information
• Intelligent agents search across servers to find the
information requested by the client (user)
• Intelligent agents arrange meetings, pay bills, and
even wander through virtual shopping malls,
suggesting gifts and so on

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 Criteria for an Effective
Collaborative Layer
• Security—very critical
• Portability across platforms
• Integration with existing systems
• Scalability, flexibility, and ease of use

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 Expert Systems
• Emulate the reasoning of a human expert in a
problem domain
• Can help a person become wiser, not just better
informed
Components include:
• Justifier: explains how and why an answer is given
• Inference engine: problem-solving mechanism for
reasoning and inferencing
• Scheduler: coordinates and controls rule processing
(See Fig. 4.12)

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Knowledge-Enabling Application
Layer
• Often referred to as value-added layer
• Creates a competitive edge for the learning
organization
• Provides knowledge bases, discussion databases,
sales force automation tools, imaging tools, etc.
• Ultimate goal: show how knowledge sharing
could improve the lot of employees

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 Transport Layer
• Most technical layer to implement
• Ensures that the company will become a
network of relationships
• Includes LANs, WANs, intranets, extranets,
and the Internet
• Considers multimedia, URLs, graphics,
connectivity speeds, and bandwidths

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 Middleware Layer
• Focus on interfacing with legacy systems and
programs residing on other platforms
• Designer should address databases and applications
with which KM system interfaces
• Contains a cluster of programs to provide
connections between legacy applications and existing
systems
• Makes it possible to connect between old and new
data formats

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 Repositories Layer
• Bottom layer in the KM architecture
• Represents the physical layer where
repositories are installed
• Includes intelligent data warehouses, legacy
applications, operational databases, and
special applications for security and traffic
management

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 Build In-House, Buy, or
Outsource?
• Trend is toward ready-to-use, generalized
software packages
• Outsourcing is also a trend, releasing
technological design to outsiders
• Regardless of choice, it is important to set criteria
for the selection
• Question of who owns the KM system should be
seriously considered

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