Chapter 6: AC Power Analysis

6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power

6.2 Effective (rms) Value
6.3 Apparent Power & Power Factor
6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangular
6.5 Power Factor Correction

1
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
6.1.1 Instantaneous Power
• Instantaneous Power = the power absorbed by the
element at any instant of time.
v(t )  Vm cos( wt   v ), i(t )  I m cos( wt   i )
p(t )  v(t )  i(t )  Vm I m cos( wt   v ) cos( wt   i )
1 1
 Vm I m cos( v   i )  Vm I m cos( 2wt   v   i )
2 2

• When p(t) is +ve: power is absorbed by circuit

• When p(t) is –ve: power is absorbed by source 2
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
6.1.2 Average Power
• Average Power = average of the instantaneous power over
one period.
1 T
p(t )   p(t )dt
T 0
1 1 T 1 1 T
 Vm I m cos( v  i )  dt  Vm I m  cos(2 wt   v  i )dt
2 T 0 2 T 0
1
p(t )  Vm I m cos( v  i )  0
2
• The second term of the integral vanishes as the area during
+ve half cycle cancels the area during –ve half cycle.
• Phasor Form:
1 1 1
P  Re[Vm I m ( v -  i )]  Re[ Vm I *m ]  Re[ I Z]
2
where ( I  I x I*)
2

2 2 2
I*  conjugate of I
 1 2
 I R ; for resistive circuit,  v -  i  0 If I  3  j4, then
 2 3
 0 ; for reactive circuit,  v -  i  90 I*  3 - j4
 a) Power in a purely
resistive AC circuit.
Average P = V I

b) Power in a purely
inductive AC circuit.
Average P = 0;
f = 2 times

c) Power in a purely
capacitive AC circuit.
Average P = 0;
f = 2 times 4
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
Example 1
Find the average power
supplied by the source
& the average power
absorbed by the resistor.
Solution:
530V 530
I   1.1256.57 A
4  j 2 4.47  26.57
1 1
 PV  Vm I m cos( v  i )  (5)(1.12) cos(30  56.57)  2.5 W
2 2

VR  I R R  IR  1.1256.57(4)  4.4856.57 V
1 1 1 1
 PR  Vm I m cos(0)  (4.48)(1.12)(1)  2.5 W or PR  I m2 R  (1.12)2 (4)  2.5 W
2 2 2 2
1
 PC  Vm I m cos( 90)  0 W
2
The average power supplied is the same as power absorbed by R. 5
Zero average power is absorbed by capacitor.
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
Example 2
Find the average power
generated by the source
& absorbed by each passive
element.

Solution:

Mesh 1 : I1  4 A
Mesh 2 : - j10I1  ( j10  j 5)I 2  6030
 I 2  10.5879.1  2  j10.39 A 6
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
Solution(continue)…

PV  average power absorbed by the voltage source

V  6030 V and I V  I 2  10.5879.1 A
1 1
 PV  Vm I m cos(θ v  θ i )  (60)(10.58) cos (30  79.1)  207.8 W
2 2

PI  average power absorbed by the current source

V1  20I 1  j10(I 1 - I 2 )  80  j10(4  2  j10.39)  184.986.21 V
I 1  40 A
1 1
 PI   Vm I m cos(θ v  θ i )   (184.98)(4 )cos (6.21  0)  367.8 W
2 2
(-ve means power is supplied by the current source) 7
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
Solution(continue)…

P20  average power absorbed by resistor, 20 

I 20  I 1  4 A, V20  I 1 R  80 V,
1 1
 P20  Vm I m  (80)(4)  160 W
2 2

P j 5  average power absorbed by capacitor,  j 5 Ω

I  j 5  I 2  10.5879.1 A, V j 5  I 2 (5  90)  52.9(79.1  90) V,
1 1
 P j 5  Vm I m cos( v   i )  (52.9)(10. 58)cos( 90)  0
2 2 8
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
Solution(continue)…

Pj10  average power absorbed by inductor, j10 

I j10  I1  I 2  2  j10.39  10.58  79.1 A
V j10  (I j10Ω )(10 90)  105.8 79.1  90 V
1 1
 Pj10  Vm I m cos ( v   i )  (105.8)(10 .58) cos (90)  0
2 2

 L & C absorb zero average power.

 Total power supplied by PI  total power absorbed by R & PV
 Power is conserved * * * :
PI  PV  P20  P j 5  Pj10  367.8  160  0  0  207.8  0 9
 Quick Review
• Instantaneous Power = the power absorbed by the element at
any instant of time.
v(t )  Vm cos( wt   v ), i(t )  I m cos( wt   i )
p(t )  v(t )  i(t )  Vm I m cos( wt   v ) cos( wt   i )
1 1
 Vm I m cos( v   i )  Vm I m cos( 2wt   v   i )
2 2
• Average Power = average of the instantaneous power over one
period.
1 T
p(t )   p(t )dt
T 0
1 1 T 1 1 T
 Vm I m cos( v   i )  dt  Vm I m  cos( 2wt   v   i )dt
2 T 0 2 T 0
1
 Vm I m cos( v   i )  0
2 10
 Quick Review
1
Average power, p(t )  Vm I m cos( v   i )
2
• Phasor Form:
1 1 1
P  Re[Vm I m ( v -  i )]  Re[ Vm I m ]  Re[ I Z]
* 2

2 2 2
where ( I  I x I*)
2

 1 2
 I R ; for resistive circuit,  v -  i  0
P 2
 0 ; for reactive circuit,  v -  i  90
11
Maximum Average Power

12
 6.1 Maximum Power Transfer in DC source voltage

RTH
Thevenin equivalent
circuit VTH I RL

Given VTH and RTH, find RL for maximum power transfer.

VTH dP VTH2 RTH  RL   2VTH2 RL RTH  RL 

2
I  0
RTH  RL
dRL RTH  RL  4

VTH2 RL
P  I RL 
2
RTH  RL  2 RL  0
RTH  RL 2
RL  RTH
In linear DC circuit, the maximum power transfer to the load can be achieved when
RL = RTH .
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 6.1 Maximum average power in ac circuit

Consider the linear circuit that connected to a load, ZL be represented by

Thevenin equivalent circuit. In ac circuit, the load is represented by impedance,
like electric motor, an antenna, etc.
In rectangular form, the impedance is:
ZTH  RTH  jX TH
Z L  RL  jX L
The current through the load is:
VTH VTH
I 
ZTH  Z L ( RTH  jX TH )  ( RL  jX L )
The average power delivered to load is :
1 2 | VTH |2 RL / 2
Pavg  | I | RL  14
2 ( RTH  RL ) 2  ( X TH  X L ) 2
 6.1Maximum average power for ZL
From the average power :
1 2 | VTH |2 RL / 2
Pavg  | I | RL 
2 ( RTH  RL ) 2  ( X TH  X L ) 2

To determine the maximum power transfer, differentiate the equation so that:

dP dP
 0 and 0
dX L dRL
Conclusion:
dP
From 0 gives, X L   X TH Using RL = RTH and XL = -XTH
dX L
| VTH |2
From
dP
 0 gives, RL  RTH
2
 ( X TH  X L ) 2 Pavg (max) 
dRL 8RTH
 RTH
This shows that, to obtain maximum average power,

RL  RTH and X L   X TH ZTH  RTH  jX TH

So, the respective ZL is given as: Z L  RL  jX L
Z L  RL  jX L  RTH  jX TH  ZTH
*

For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the
Complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance, ZTH 15
 6.1 Maximum average power for RL
From the average power :
ZTH  RTH  jX TH
1 2 | VTH |2 RL / 2
Pavg  | I | RL  Z L  RL  jX L
2 ( RTH  RL ) 2  ( X TH  X L ) 2

So that,
dP
We know that for purely resistive load, XL = 0. To find maximum power, set 0
dRL

dP VTH

2

( RTH  RL ) 2  X TH
2
 2 RL ( RTH  RL )
0

dRL 
2 ( RTH  RL )  X L
2 2

So that,
R L  R TH
2
 X TH
2
| ZTH |

So the maximum average power can be determine from,

1 2
Pavg (max)  | I | RL
2
16
 6.1 Conclusion: Maximum average power

• For Impedance load, ZL • For Purely resistive load, RL

dP dP XL = 0, so that dP
0
 0 and 0 dRL
dX L dRL

Using RL = RTH and XL = -XTH RL  RTH

2
 X TH
2
| ZTH |

Z L  RL  jX L  RTH  jX TH  ZTH
*
1 2
Pavg (max)  | I | RL
2
| VTH |2
Pavg (max) 
8RTH

17
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
6.1.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
• Consider the following AC circuit and
adjust ZL so that PL is maximum.
ZTh  RTh  jX Th ; Z L  RL  jX L
VTh VTh
I  
ZTh  Z L ( RTh  jX Th )  ( RL  jX L )
1  
2
1 2 VTh R
PL  I RL 
2  ( RTh  RL )  ( X Th  X L ) 
2 2 L
2

 VTh 2

 ; for any load where X L   X Th &
 PL (max)   8 RTh


 RL  R 2
Th X 2
L  X 2
Th 
 RTh or Z L  Z *
Th
or
1 2
 2 I RL ; for purely resistive load where X L  0 &
 PL (max)  
 
18
 R  R2  X 2  X 2  Z
 L Th L Th Th
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
Example 3
Determine the load impedance
that maximizes the average
power transfer & find the
maximum average power.
Solution:
ZTh  j5  4 //(8  j 6)  2.93  j 4.47 

Load impedance that draw maximum power transfer

 ZL  Z*Th  2.93  j 4.47 

8  j6
VTh  (10)  7.45  10.3 V
4  8  j6
Maximum average power,
2
VTh (7.45) 2
 Pmax    2.368 W 19
8RTh 8(2.93)
 6.1 Instantaneous & Average Power
Example 4
A pure resistive load of RL
is connected to the circuit and will
absorb the maximum
average power. Calculate the
maximum average power.
Solution: ZTh  (40  j30) // j 20  9.41  j 22.35 
Load impedance that draw maximum power transfer
(Refer to  R L  ZTh  9.412  22.352  24.25 
summary)

j 20
VTh  (15030)  72.76134 V
j 20  40  j30
VTh 72.76134
I   1.8100.2 A
ZTh  R L 9.41  j 22.35  24.25
For purely resistive load, maximum average power
1 2 1 20
 Pmax  I R L  (1.8) 2 (24.25)  39.29 W
2 2
6.2 Effective (rms) Value
• Effective value = the dc signal
that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the
periodic signal.

• Example of the circuit shown:

Ieff will transfer the same
average power to resistor R as
i(t).

21
6.2 Effective (rms) Value
• Effective value of a periodic signal is also its root mean
square (rms) value:
1 T 2 1 T 2
I eff  I rms 
T 0
i (t) dt ; Veff  Vrms 
T 0
v (t) dt

eg : if I(t)  I m cos t and V(t)  Vm cos t

Im Vm
 I eff  I rms  ; Veff  Vrms 
2 2
• Average power can also be expressed in rms value:
1
P  Vm I m cos( v   i )  Vrms I rms cos( v   i )
2
For resistive load ,  v   i  0
2
V
 P  Vrms I rms  I rms
2
R  rms 22
R
6.3 Apparent Power & Power Factor
For average power, P  Vm I m cos  v  i   Vrms I rms cos ( v  i )
1
2
 S cos ( v  i )
1
• Apparent power, S  V I
rms rms (VA) S  Vm I m
2
• Power factor, pf = ratio of ‘Average’ to ‘Apparent’ power:
 cos  v   i 
P
pf 
S
• pf angle = load impedance, Z angle =  v   i 
• pf range: 1 , for purely resistive load
pf  
 0 , for purely reactive load

- Leading pf : current leads voltage  capacitive load

- lagging pf : current lags voltage  inductive load
23
 Power triangle

CIVIL  For C, I leads V; For L, V leads I 24

6.3 Apparent Power & Power Factor
Example 5
Find the power factor of
the entire circuit.
Determine the average power
delivered by the source.

Solution:
Z  [6  (4 //  j 2)]  6.8  j1.6  7  13.24 
pf  cos( 13.24)  0.973 (leading)
pf is leading as impedance is capacitive .

Vrms 300
I rms    4.28613.24 A
Z 7  13.24

P  Vrms I rms cos(v  i )  Vrms I rms ( pf )  (30)( 4.29)(0.973)  125 W or

P  I rms
2
R  (4.29) 2 (6.8)  125 W 25
 6.3 Apparent Power & Power Factor
Example 6
A series-connected load draws current 4cos(100 t+10°) A, when the
applied voltage is 120cos(100 t-20°) V. Find power factor of the
apparent power and the load. Determine the value of the elements
that form the load.
Solution:
120 4
S  Vrms I rms   240 VA
2 2
 pf  cos( v  i )  cos( 20  10)  0.866 (leading) or

V 120  20
Z   30  30  25.98  j15 
I 410
 pf  cos( 30)  0.866 (leading)
pf is leading as current leads voltage.

 Load Impedance consist of R  25.98 in series with a capacitor,

1 1
 X C  15   , C   212.2 μF 26
wC (100 )(15)
6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
4.4.1 Complex Power
• Representation in complex form that contain all the
information pertaining to the power absorbed by a given
load.
S  P  jQ
S  complex power
P  real power
Q  reactive power
magnitude, S  S , apparent power
angle of S  angle of pf

S  Vrm sI *rm s  Vrm s I rm s cos (θv  θi )  jVrm s I rm s sin (θv  θi )

 P  Re( S)  Vrm s I rm s cos (θv  θi )
 Q  Im( S)  Vrm s I rm s sin (θv  θi )
27
 6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
Phasor Form
• Base on voltage & current signals:
S  12 V  I*  12 Vm I m ( v   i )  12 Vm I m cos( v   i )  j 12 Vm I m sin(  v   i )
 Vrms  I *rms  Vrm s I rm s cos( v   i )  jVrm s I rm s sin(  v   i )

• Base on load impedance:

2
Vrms V Vrms Vrm s
 v   i
2
S Vrms  I *rms  I rms Z  where Z   
Z* I I rms I rm s
• Let Z  R  jX
 S  I rm
2
s ( R  jX )

 P  Re[ S]  12 Vm I m cos ( v   i )  Vrm s I rm s cos ( v   i )  I rm

2
sR

 Q  Im[S]  12 Vm I m sin(  v   i )  Vrm s I rm s sin(  v   i )  I rm

2
sX

28
6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
Real/Average Power, P
- Average Power delivered to load
- the actual power dissipated by load (useful power)
- depends on the load’s resistance R
- measured in Watt [W]

• Reactive Power, Q
- depends on the load’s reactance X
- measured in Volt-Ampere Reactive [VAR]
- energy exchange btw source & reactive load
1.Q = 0 for Resistive Load (unity pf)
2.Q < 0 for Capacitive Load (leading pf)
3.Q > 0 for Inductive Load (lagging pf)
29
 6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
• Complex Power is used to obtain the Real & Reactive
Powers directly from the voltage & current phasors.
• Complex Power contains all the relevant power
information in a given load.

Summary
1 *
Complex Power, S  P  jQ  VI  Vrm s I rm sθ v -θi [VA]
2
Apparent Power, S  S  P 2  Q 2  Vrm s I rm s [VA]
Average Power, P  Re[ S]  S cos(θ v -θ i ) [W]
Reactive Power, Q  Im[ S]  S sin( θ v -θi ) [VAR]
P
Power Factor, pf   cos(θ v -θi ) [unitless]
S
30
 6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
6.4.2 Power Triangle
• Power Triangular can be used to represent S, P & Q
• Power Triangular has 4 items – Apparent/Complex
Power, Real & Reactive Power, Power Factor angle.
• If S lies in 1st quadrant – Inductive load & lagging pf,
If S lies in 4th quadrant – Capacitive load & leading pf

Inductive
load

Capacitive
load
Power Triangle Impedance Triangle
31
6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
6.4.3 Conservation of AC Power***
• When 2 load impedances connected in parallel [Fig.(a)]
I  I1  I 2
1 * 1
S VI  V(I 1*  I *2 )
2 2
1 * 1 *
 VI 1  VI 2  S1  S 2
2 2

• When 2 load impedances connected in series [Fig.(b)]

V  V1  V2
1 * 1
S  VI  (V1  V2 )I *
2 2
1 1
 V1I *  V2 I *  S1  S 2
2 2
32
6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
• The Complex, Real & Reactive Powers of the sources =
Respective sum of the Complex, Real & Reactive
Powers of the individual loads.
S  S1  S2  ...  S N

• Total power ‘supplied by source’ = ‘delivered to load’

• Total Complex Power – the sum of complex powers of
individual elements
• Total Real Power & Reactive Power are also the sum of
individual Real Power & Reactive Power, but not true of
Apparent Power

33
 Quick Review
Maximum average power
• For Impedance load, ZL
| VTH |2
Z L  ZTH
*
Pavg (max) 
8RTH
• For Purely resistive load, RL
1 2
RL | ZTH | Pavg (max)  | I | RL
2

Effective (rms) Value

Im Vm
I eff  I rms  ; Veff  Vrms 
2 2
34
 Quick Review
Complex Power, 1
S  Vm I *m
S  P  jQ 2
 Vrms I *rms  Vrms I rms θv -θi 
 Vrms I rms cosθv -θi   j Vrms I rms sin θv -θi 
or
S  P  jQ
R  jX  1
2 2
 I rms Z  I rms
2
S  Im Z
2
 I rms R  j I rms X
2 2

or
S  P  jQ 2
1 Vm
2 S
Vrms 2 Z*
 * 35
Z
 Quick Review
  v  i
Q X
 tan 1    tan 1  
P R

Apparent Power, S  P 2  Q2  Vrms I rms

Real Power, P  S cos
Reactive Power, Q  S sin 

P
Power Factor, pf  cos 
S 36
Complex Power

Apparent Power

Real Power

Reactive Power

PF Angle

Power Factor

37
 6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
Example 7
The voltage across a load is v(t)=60cos(wt-10°) V and current flows
through the element in the direction of the voltage drop is
i(t)=1.5cos(wt+50°) A. Find (a) complex & apparent powers, (b) Real
& Reactive powers, (c) power factor and load impedance.
Solution:
Vrms  60 / 2 10, Irms  1.5 / 250,

  
(a) S  Vrms I*rms  60 / 2  10 1.5 / 2  50  45   60 VA
S  S  45 VA

(b) S  45   60  22.5  j 38.97  P  jQ

Real Power, P  22.5 W,
Reactive Power, Q  38.97 VAR
(c) pf  cos( v  i )  cos( 60)  0.5 (leading as Q is negative)

V 60  10
Z   40  60  20  j34.64  (capacitiv e impedance) 38
I 1.550
 6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
Example 8
A load Z draws 12 kVA at a power factor of 0.856 lagging from a
120 V-rms sinusoidal source. Find (a) Real & Reactive powers
delivered to the load, (b) the peak current, (c) the load impedance.
Solution:
pf  cos   0.856,    cos -1 (0.856)  31.13
(a) P  Scos   12000(0.856)  10.272 kW
Q  Ssin   12000 sin( 31.13)  6.204 kVAR

(b) S  P  jQ  10.272  j 6.204 kVA  Vrms I *rms

S 10272  j 6204
I*rms    85.6  j51.7  10031.13 A
Vrms 1200
 I rms  100  31.13 A
 I m  2  I rms  2 (100)  141.4 A
Vrms 1200
(c) Z    1.231.13  39
I rms 100  31.13
 6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
Example 9
Z1=60-30° Ω and Z2=4045° Ω.
Find the following from the given
circuit: (a) Apparent power,
(b) Real & Reactive powers,
(c) Power factor

Solution:
2
Vrms (120) 2
S1  *   240  30  207.85  j120 VA
Z1 6030
2
Vrms (120) 2
S2  *   36045  254.6  j 254.6 VA
Z2 40  45

(a) ST  S1  S2  462.4  j134.6  481.616.22 VA

S T  ST  462.4 2  134.6 2  481.6 VA
(b) PT  Re[ST ]  462.4 W, QT  Im[ ST ]  134.6 VAR
PT 462.4 40
(c) pf    0.96 (Lagging)
S T 481.6
 6.4 Complex Power & Power Triangle
Solution (continue…):

Altenative 1 :
2 
Vrms  1 1 
ST   120 2   
ZT  Z1 Z 2 

 1 1 
 120  2
   481.616.22 VA
 60  30 4045 

Altenative 2 :
 1 1 
(I T ) rms 
 I1  I 2  V   
 Z1 Z 2 
 1 1 
 12010    4.04  6.22 A
 60  30 4045 
S T  Vrms (I T )rms  120104.04  6.22  481.616.22 VA


41
6.5 Power Factor Correction
4.5.1 Introduction
• Most loads (domestic & industrial) are inductive &
operate on a low lagging pf.
• pf can be improved or corrected by installing a capacitor
in parallel with the load.
• Power Factor Correction – process of increasing pf
without changing the voltage or current to the load.

42
6.5 Power Factor Correction
• Power companies charge more for larger currents due to
the increase in power losses. Thus it’s more desirable
for both company & consumer to minimize current level
or keep pf as close to unity as possible.

• Power Factor Correction – addition of reactive element

(usually capacitor) in parallel with the load to increase pf
closer to unity.

• The increase of pf using the capacitor can be illustrated

by using either Phasor Diagram or Power Triangle.

43
6.5 Power Factor Correction
6.5.2 Phasor Diagram
The advantages of adding the parallel shunt capacitor are:
1. Draw less current with the same circuit voltage,
reduction of IL to I.
2. Reduce the phase angle (between voltage & current
signals) from 1 to  2 , thus increasing the pf.

44
6.5 Power Factor Correction
6.5.3 Power Triangle
• An increase of pf from cos θ1 to
cos θ2, without changing the
Real Power, P
Q1  P tan θ1 ; Q2  P tan θ2

• The reduction in reactive power:

QC  Q1  Q2  P(tan θ1  tan θ 2 )

• Determine the value of the shunt capacitor:

2
Vrms Q P(tan θ1  tan θ2 )
QC   CVrms
2
 C  C2 
XC Vrms Vrms
2

• If an inductor is used for Power Factor Correction, the

value of the shunt inductor can also be determined:
2 2 2
Vrms Vrms Vrms
QL    L
XL L QL 45
6.5 Power Factor Correction
Example 10
When connected to a 120Vrms, 60Hz power line, a load absorbs
4 kW at a lagging pf of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance necessary
to raise the pf to 0.95.
Solution: initial pf  cos θ1  0.8  θ1  36.87
P 4000
S1    5000 VA
cos θ1 0.8
Q1  S1 sin θ1  5000 sin 36.87  3000 VAR

new pf  cos θ 2  0.95  θ 2  18.19

P 4000
S2    4210.5 VA
cos θ 2 0.95
Q2  S 2 sin θ 2  4210.5 sin 18.19  1314.4 VAR

The new reactive Power due to parallel addition of capacitor to load,

QC  Q1  Q2  3000  1314.4  1685.6 VAR
QC 1685.6
C    310.5 μF 46
2
wVrm s (2 )(60)(120) 2
 Quick Review
Power Factor Correction
– process of increasing pf without changing the voltage or current to the load.
– addition of reactive element (usually capacitor) in parallel with the load to increase pf
closer to unity.

Q1  P tan θ1 ; Q2  P tan θ2
QC  Q1  Q2  P(tan θ1  tan θ2 )
2
Vrms QC P(tan θ1  tan θ2 )
QC   CVrms  C 
2
 47
XC Vrms
2
Vrms
2
6.5 Power Factor Correction
Example 11
A factory has the following four major loads that are connected to a
240Vrms, 50 Hz power line circuit:

• 1 unit of air compressor rated at 2 hp, 0.55 power factor (lagging);

• 2 units of oven rated at 1.5 kW, 1.0 power factor;
• 8 units of 100W light bulbs, 1.0 power factor;
• 1 unit of synchronous motor rated at 1.5 hp, 0.85 power factor
(leading).
(Note: 1 hp = 0.75 kW).

(i) Calculate the total real, reactive and apparent power.

(ii) Find the overall power factor and sketch the power triangle.
(iii) Determine the value of shunt capacitor required to raise the
overall power factor to unity.

48
6.5 Power Factor Correction
Solution:
S1  (2)(0.75)  j (2)(0.75) tan(cos 1 0.55)  1.5  j 2.278 kVA
S 2  (2)(1.5)  j 0 kVA
S 3  (8)(0.1)  j 0 kVA
S 4  (1.5)(0.75)  j (1.5)(0.75) tan(cos 1 0.85)  1.125  j 0.697 kVA
 S  S 1  S 2  S 3  S 4  6.425  j1.581 kVA
 P  6.425 kW; Q  1.581 kVAR; S  6.617 kVA
-1  1.581 
S

  tan    13.82
P = 6.425

 6.425 
 pf  cos   0.971 θ = 13.82°

Q = 1.581

QC  P[tan 1  tan  2 ]  6.425[tan 13.82  tan(cos 1 (1))]  1.581 kVA

QC 1.581  10 3
C    87.37 F 49
Vrm2 s (2 )(50)( 240) 2
6.5 Power Factor Correction
Example 12
Consider the power system shown, find:
(a) total complex power and power factor.
(b) capacitance to establish a unity power factor.
Solution:
2
(a) Vrm s (240) 2 5760
S1     517.75  j 323.59
Z1* 80  j 50 8  j 5
2
Vrm s (240) 2 5760
S2     358.13  j 208.91
Z1* 120  j 70 12  j 7
2
Vrm s (240) 2
S3    960
Z1* 60
 S  S1  S 2  S 3  1835.88  j114.68 VA

   114.68 
pf  cos  tan -1    cos( 3.57)  0.998
  1835.88 

(b) Since the circuit already has a leading power factor, near unity, no
50
compensation is necessary.
Chapter 7: Three Phase Circuit
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
7.1.1 Balanced Wye-Wye Connection
7.1.2 Balanced Wye-Delta Connection
7.1.3 Balanced Delta-Delta Connection
7.1.4 Balanced Delta-Wye Connection

7.2 Power in a Balanced System

7.3 Unbalanced Three-Phase System

51
 Introduction
• In our previous chapter, we have dealt with
single-phase two-wire system, consisting of a
generator connected through a pair of wires
(transmission line) to a load.

52
Introduction
• Another example, a three-phase four-wire
system is produced by a generator which
consist of 3 sources with the same amplitude
and frequency but out of phase with each other
by 120°.

53
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
A three-phase system is the most common & most
economical poly-phase system due to :

1. Nearly all electric power is generated & distributed in

3-phase, at 50 Hz or 60 Hz – When one-phase or
two-phase inputs are required, they are taken from a
three-phase system, than generated independently.
2. Instantaneous Power in a 3-phase system can be
constant – results in uniform power transmission &
less vibration of three-phase machines.
3. Three-phase system is more economical than a
single phase for the same amount of power – the
amount of wire required for three-phase system is
also less than an equivalent one-phase system.

54
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System

Also refer to file ‘plug & socket’ 55

 List of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies
Region Type(s) of plug / socket Voltage Frequency Comments
Eastern Japan 50 Hz (Tokyo, Kawasaki,
50 Hz
Sapporo, Yokohama, and Sendai);
Japan 100 V and
Western Japan 60 Hz (Osaka, Kyoto, Kobe,
(USA 2 pin)
60 Hz
(USA 3 pin) Nagoya, Hiroshima)
"Schukostecker" likely to be found in offices
Korea, and hotels. Some hotels still offer both 110 V
220 V 60 Hz
South and 220 V service. Switches and outlets fit
(Euro 2 pin) ("Schukostecker") American-sized boxes.
Penang 230 V. “Euro 2 pin” plugs are very
common with AV equipments. Plugged using
Malaysia 240 V 50 Hz widely-available adapters or forced into type
G (Fused 13 A) M (15 A) G sockets by pushing down the shutter. Type
M for heavy appliances: air conditioners.
Always have a 110 V socket and a 230 V
socket in the same unit, or a switch to select
United voltage, which are sometimes labelled as 115
230 V 50 Hz
Kingdom V and 230 V. 110 V centre point earthed
G (Fused 13 A) M (15 A) transformers are often used for industrial
portable tools.
In practice, voltage ranges from 105V to
130V depending on location, but these are
United within tolerance 120V. 240 V/60 Hz used for
States of 120 V 60 Hz heavy duty applications (e.g. clothes driers,
America (USA 2 pin) (USA 3 pin) electric cook-stoves and machinery). Older
56
systems used DC, 25 hertz, and even 50 hertz,
but most have been replaced.
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
• Three-phase voltages are produced with a 3-phase ac
generator (alternator).
• The generator consist of Rotor - rotating magnet &
Stator - stationary winding.
• 3 separate windings or coils with terminal a-a’, b-b’& c-c’,
each 120° apart around stator with ends of coil going
in/out.

57
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
• As the rotor rotates, its magnetic field cuts flux from 3
coils & induces voltage in the coils.
• The induced voltages in the coils are equal in
magnitude but out of phase by 120°.
• Each coil can be regarded as a single-phase generator.
The 3-phase generator can supply power to both
single-phase & 3-phase loads.

58
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
• Three-phase system consist of 3 voltage sources
connected to loads by 3 or 4 wires (transmission lines).
• Voltage sources can be either Wye- or Delta- connected.
• Three-phase system is equivalent to 3 single-phase
circuits.

Generated voltages are equal in

amplitude (magnitude) and 120°
apart from each other. The sum of
3 sinusoidal waves is zero.
59
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Consider a Wye-connected voltage:
• Phase voltages: Van, Vbn and Vcn, between lines
a, b, c & neutral line n.
• Balanced phase voltages have the same
magnitude & frequency, but are 120° out of
phase with each other.
Van  Vbn  Vcn  0 & Van  Vbn  Vcn

60
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Phase Sequence
• Since voltages are 120° out of phase with each other,
there are 2 possible phase sequence: Positive or
Negative.
• Phase sequence is the time order in which the voltages
pass through their respective maximum values.
• Phase sequence determines the direction of rotation of
the motor connected to power source.

61
Positive (abc) sequence Negative (acb) sequence
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Positive Phase Sequence (abc)
• Rotor rotates counterclockwise.
• Van leads Vbn , Vbn leads Vcn .
• Sequence: abc abc abc abc.
• Vp is the effective or rms value
of the phase voltages.

Van  V p 0
Vbn  V p   120
Vcn  V p   240  V p   120
Positive (abc) sequence

62
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Negative Phase Sequence (acb)
• Rotor rotates clockwise.
• Van leads Vcn , Vcn leads Vbn .
• Sequence: acb acb acb acb.
• Vp is the effective or rms value
of the phase voltages.

Van  V p 0
Vcn  V p   120
Vbn  V p   240  V p   120
Negative (acb) sequence

63
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Three Phase Connection System

Time Domain Diagram Phasor Diagram

64
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
• Three-phase load can either be Wye- or Delta-
connected, depending on the end application.
• Neutral line may or may not be connected, depending
on the system (not for Delta connection).
• Balanced load is one which the phase impedances are
equal both in magnitude and phase.

• Balanced connected load:

(i) Wye - connected Load :
ZY  Z1  Z 2  Z 3
(ii) Delta - connected Load :
Z   Z a  Zb  Zc

 Z   3ZY , ZY  13 Z  65
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
• A balanced Delta-connected load is more common than a
Wye-connected load because:
- loads may be added or removed easily from each phase.
- the neutral line may not be accessible for Wye-connected
load.
• A Delta-connected source is not common in practice
because:
- circulating current will result in Delta-mesh if the
three-phase voltages are slightly unbalanced.

• There are a few variation for three-phase source & three-

phase load system:
a) Balanced Wye-Wye Connection
b) Balanced Wye-Delta Connection (most common)
c) Balanced Delta-Delta Connection
d) Balanced Delta-Wye Connection
66
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Example 1
Determine the phase sequence.
van  200 cos(wt  10)
vbn  200 cos(wt  230)
vcn  200 cos(wt  110)

Solution: Vbn
Phasor form, w
Van
Van  20010
Vbn  200  230
Vcn  200  110
Vcn

 Van leads Vcn by 120° and Vcn leads Vbn by 120°.

Thus, it’s a (acb) or (bac) or (cba) negative sequence. 67
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Example 2
Given that Vbn =11030°. Find Van and Vcn.
Assume a positive sequence.

Solution:
Van Vbn
Phasor form,
Vbn  11030
Vcn  110(30  120)  110  90 w
Van  110(30  120)  110150
Vcn

For a positive sequence : (abc) or (bca) or (cab).

 Vbn leads Vcn by 120° and Vcn leads Van by 120°.
68
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.1 Balanced Wye-Wye Connection
• Any balanced three-phase system can be reduced to
an equivalent Y-Y system. This is the key to solving all
balanced three-phase system.
• Balanced Y-Y system = three-phase system with a
balanced Y-connected source & balanced Y-connected
load.

69
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.1 Balanced Wye-Wye Connection
• Assume a balanced load with equal load impedance.

ZS = Internal source impedance of phase winding of generator

Zl = Line impedance of a phase of the source joining with a phase of load
ZL = Impedance of each phase of load
Zn = Impedance of the neutral line

• Total load impedance per phase:

70
ZY  Z S  Z l  Z L  ZY  Z L as ZS & Zl  ZL
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.1 Balanced Wye-Wye Connection
• Assume Positive (abc) sequence.
Phase voltage: Van  V p 0, Vbn  V p   120,
Vcn  V p   120
Line voltage: Vab  Van  Vbn  V p (1  j 0  0.5  j 0.866)
 3 V p 30
 Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  3 V p   90
 Vca  Vcn  Van  3 V p   210
(Vab leads Vbc by 120° & Vbc leads Vca by 120°)

VL  3V p where VL  Vab  Vbc  Vca

V p  Van  Vbn  Vcn

Van  Vbn  Vcn  V p 0  V p   120  V p   120

 V p (1  0.5  j 0.866  0.5  j 0.866)  0
71
 Van  Vbn  Vcn  0  Vab  Vbc  Vca  0
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
• Line current is the current in each line.
• Phase current is the current in each phase of source or
load.
• In Y-Y system, line current = phase current.
• Apply KVL to each phase.
Phase current:
Van (A balanced Y-Y system can be
Ia 
ZY analyzed on a “per phase” basis).
Vbn Van  120
 Ib    I a   120
ZY ZY
Vcn Van  240 VP
 Ic    I a   240 IL 
ZY ZY ZY

Line current: line current = phase current

72
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Short summary for a balanced Wye-Wye connection

KCL at point N

 I a  Ib  Ic  0
 I n  (I a  I b  I c )  0
 VnN  Z n I n  0
(Neutral line can be removed without affecting the system as In = 0) 73
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Prove:

I n  (I a  I b  I c )
 2   4 
 sin x  sin  x     sin  x   
 3   3 
2  2  4  4 
 sin x  sin x cos    cos x sin     sin x cos    cos x sin   
3  3  3  3 
1 3 1 3
 sin x  sin x  cos x  sin x  cos x
2 2 2 2
0

* Neutral line can be removed without affecting the system as In = 0

In the same way:

 Van  Vbn  Vcn  0 74
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Example 3
Find the line currents
in the 3-wire Y-Y system.

Solution:
The 3 phase circuit is balanced.
We can replace it with a single
phase equivalent circuit, hence:
Van
Ia 
ZY
Z Y  (5  j 2)  (10  j8)  15  j 6  16.15521.8
1100
 Ia   6.81  21.8 
16.15521.8
Since the source voltages are in positive sequence, the line currents are also
in positive sequence.
 I b  I a   120  6.81  141.8
 

 I c  I a   120   6.8198.2  75
7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.2 Balanced Wye-Delta Connection
• Balanced Y-Δ system = three-phase system with a
balanced Y-connected source & balanced Δ-connected
load.
• No neutral connection from source to load.
• An alternative way to analyze Y-Δ system is to
transform the Δ-connected load to Y-connected load,
becoming a Y-Y system which can be replaced by
single-phase equivalent circuit.

76
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.2 Balanced Wye-Delta Connection
• Assume Positive (abc) sequence.
Phase voltage: Van  V p 0, Vbn  V p   120, Vcn  V p   120

Line voltage: Vab  3 V p 30  VAB

Line voltages = Vbc  3 V p   90  VBC
voltages across
the load Vca  3 V p   210  VCA
impedances

Van  Vbn Vab VAB VBC VCA

Phase current: I AB    , I BC  , I CA 
Z Z Z Z Z
(same magnitude but out of phase with each other by 120°)
Line current: I a  I AB  I CA  I AB  I AB  240  I AB 3  30
(Line current lags Phase current by 30°)

IL  3 IP where I L  I a  I b  I c ; I P  I AB  I BC  I CA 77
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Example 4
A balanced abc-sequence Y-connected source with Van=100 10° volt is
connected to a Δ-connected balanced load (8+j4) Ω per phase.
Calculate the phase and line currents.
Solution:
Method 1
Load impedance: Z   8  j 4  8.94426.57 
Line voltage: Vab  Van 330  100 3(10  30)
V AB  Vab  173.240
V
Phase currents: I AB  AB  19.3613.43 A
Z
I BC  19.36  106.57 I CA  19.36133.43

Line currents: I a  I AB 3  30  33.53  16.57

I b  33.53  136.57 I c  33.53103.43 78
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Example 4
A balanced abc-sequence Y-connected source with Van=100 10° volt is
connected to a Δ-connected balanced load (8+j4) Ω per phase.
Calculate the phase and line currents.
Solution(continue…):
Method 2 Using single-phase analysis:

Van 10010 
Ia    33.54  16.57 
A
Z  2.98126.57
1 

3
Other current are obtained using abc positive phase sequence:

 I b  33.54  136.57  A
 I c  33.54103.43 A

79
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.3 Balanced Delta-Wye Connection
• Balanced Δ-Y system– 3-phase system with a balanced Δ-
connected source & balanced Y-connected load.
• Assuming a positive sequence

Phase voltage: Vab  V p 0  VAB ; Vbc  V p   120  VBC ; Vca  V p 120  VCA

Line voltage: line voltage = phase voltage

80
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.3 Balanced Delta-Wye Connection
Line current:
Take KVL around loop aANBba
 Vab  Z Y I a  Z Y I b  0
V P  0
 I a  Ib 
ZY
and Ib  I a   120
 I a  Ib  I a 330
V P / 3  30
 Ia 
ZY
 Ib  I a  120
 Ic  I a  120

Phase current: phase current = line current 81

7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.3 Balanced Delta-Wye Connection
• Method II to obtain line currents
= replace Δ-connected source with its equivalent
Y-connected source.

Vp Vp Vp
Van    30, Vbn    150, Vcn    90
3 3 3 82
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Example 5
A balanced Y-connected load with a phase impedance of 40+j25 Ω is
supplied by a balanced, positive sequence Δ-connected source with a
line voltage of 210 V. Calculate the phase currents. Use Vab as
reference.
Solution:
Load impedance: Z   40  j 25  47.1732 
Source voltage: Vab  2100
Transform the Δ-connected source to Y-connected source
Vab
Van    30  121.2  30
3
Van 121.2  30
Line currents: Ia    2.57   62
ZY 47.1232
I b  2.57  182 I c  2.5758

Phase currents are the same as line currents 83

 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
5.1.4 Balanced Delta-Delta Connection
• Balanced Δ-Δ system – both the balanced source & balanced
load are Δ-connected.

Phase voltage: Vab  V p 0  VAB , Vbc  V p   120  VBC , Phase voltages =
voltages across the
Vca  V p 120  VCA
load impedances
Line voltage: line voltage = phase voltage
VAB Vab V V V V
Phase current: I AB   , I BC  BC  bc , I CA  CA  ca
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Line current: I a  I AB  I CA , I b  I BC  I AB , I c  I CA  I BC
84
(Line current lags phase current by 30°)
 7.1 Balanced Three-Phase System
Example 6
A balanced Δ -connected load having an impedance of 20-j15 Ω is
supplied by a balanced, positive sequence Δ-connected source with
Vab=3300° V. Calculate the phase currents of the load and the line
currents

Solution:
Load impedance: Z   20  j15  25  36.87 
Phase currents: VAB  Vab
VAB 3300
I AB    13.236.87 
Z  25  36.87
I BC  13.2  83.13 I CA  13.2156.87

Line currents: I a  I AB 3  30  22.866.87

I b  22.86  113.13 I c  22.86126.87 85
7.2 Power in Balanced System
• The advantages of three-phase systems for power
generation & distribution:
1) Total instantaneous power is independent of time.
2) Use lesser amount of wire than single-phase system
for the same line voltage VL & absorbed power PL.

• For either the Δ-connected or Y-connected load,

(a) Average Power per phase: Pp  V p I p cos

(b) Reactive Power per phase: Q p  V p I p sin 

(c) Apparent Power per phase: S p  V p I p

(d) Complex Power per phase: S p  Pp  jQ p  Vp I*p

[where Vp & Ip = phase voltage & current with magnitude Vp & Ip ] 86
7.2 Power in Balanced System
• For a Y-connected load, I L  I p but VL  3 V p

• For a Δ-connected load, I L  3 I p but VL  V p

• Load impedance per phase: Z p  Z p  where Z p  ZY or Z

• Thus, for either the Δ-connected or Y-connected load,

(a) Total Average Power
P  Pa  Pb  Pc  3Pp  3V p I p cos  3VL I L cos
(b) Total Reactive Power
Q  3Q p  3V p I p sin   3VL I L sin 
(c) Total Complex Power
2
3V
S  3S p  3Vp I*p  3I p2 Z p  *p  P  jQ  3VL I L 
Zp
[where VL , V p , I L , I p  rms values &   phase angle between V & I] 87
 7.2 Power in Balanced System
Comparison between 3-phase and single-phase system.

PL2
Power loss in 2 - wire : Ploss2 wire  2I R  2R 2
2
L
VL
PL2 PL2
Power loss in 3 - wire : P '
loss3 wire  3( I ) R'  3R'
'
L
2
2
 R' 2
( 3VL ) VL
88
 7.2 Power in Balanced System
• Power loss in 2 wires & 3 wires,
Ploss2 wire 2 R 2 l / r 2 2r '2
   2
Ploss3 wire R' l / r '
' 2
r
• If the same power loss is tolerated in both system,
2r ' 2 r2
1 2  2  2
r r'
• Material required is determined by no. of wires & volume
Material for Single - phase 2r 2 l 2r 2 2
  2  (2)  1.333 (133%)
Material for Three - phase 3r ' l 3r '
2
3

• Single-phase system uses 33% more material compared to

three-phase system to deliver same amount of power.
89
 7.2 Power in Balanced System
Example 7
Determine the total average
power, reactive power and
complex power at the
source and at the load.
Solution:
It is sufficient to consider
one phase, as the system
is balanced.
V p  1100 ; I p  6.81  21.8o

Complex power supplied from the source is:

S S  3V p I *p  311006.8121.8  2087  j834.6 VA

Complex power absorbed by the load is:

S L  3 | I p | 2 Z p  36.812 10  j8  1392  j1113 VA  S s  S L  Sl  0
Complex power absorbed by the line impedance is:
S l  3 | I p | 2 Z l  36.812 5  j 2  695.6  j 287.3 VA
90
7.3 Unbalanced Three-Phase Systems
• An unbalanced three-phase system is caused by:
1) Source voltages are not equal in magnitude or differ
in angles that are unequal.
2) Load impedances are unequal.

• Unbalanced three-phase system can be solved by

using Mesh and Nodal analysis.

• Power in an unbalanced three-phase system can be

calculated by finding the power in each phase (same
equations as given in balanced three-phase system).
However, total power is not simply 3x(Power/phase)
but the sum of powers in the three phases.

91
7.3 Unbalanced Three-Phase Systems
A balanced source with an
unbalanced Y-connected load,
given in the figure, where
ZA, ZB and ZC are not equal.

• To obtain the line currents :

VAN V V
Ia  , I b  BN , I c  CN
ZA ZB ZC
• The unbalanced line currents produces current in the
neutral line (In=0 in a Balanced three-phase system)
Apply KVL at node N, I n  (I a  I b  I c )

• In long distance power transmission, multiple three-wire

system is used, with earth as the neutral wire.

92
 7.3 Unbalanced Three-Phase Systems
Example 8
The unbalanced Y-load has balanced voltages of 100V and the positive
sequence. Calculate the line currents and the neutral current. Take
ZA=15 Ω, ZB=10+j5 Ω and ZC=6-j8 Ω.

Solution:

Line currents are

VAN 1000
Ia    6.670
ZA 15
100120
Ib   8.9493.44
10  j 5
100  120
Ic   10  66.87
6  j8
Neutral line current
I n  ( I a  I b  I c )  10.06178.4
93