Adapted from

Wireless Communications
Principles & Practice

By Theodore S. Rappaport , 2nd ed.

Prentice Hall, 2002

1
Advantages of Wireless Communication:

As wireless frequency penetrates the walls, wireless networks

are easy to install anywhere based on choice. This flexibility is one of
the great benefits of wireless network where wired cable can not be
installed.

Wireless networks are easy to install and easy to maintain

compare to messy wired counterparts. This will help when network
grows and will have hundreds to thousands of customers.

2
Disadvantages of Wireless Communication:

Wireless signals can be easily hacked and hence it will hamper

privacy. To avoid this, security algorithms (AES, WEP, WAP2) and
modulation techniques (FHSS, DSSS) are employed in wireless networks.

The earlier wireless networks were slower. Now-a-days wireless

LANs with advanced standards such as IEEE 802.11ac and 802.11ad are
available which provides same performance as traditional ethernet based
LANs.

Wireless networks require careful radio frequency planning at the

beginning of the installation.

Wireless communication is subject to interference. There are various

receiver techniques and modulation techniques which make wireless system
3
robust against any kind of interference.
 Why Wireless?
Benefits
Mobility: Ability to communicate anywhere!!
Easier configuration, set up and lower installation cost.

Difficulties
Communication medium: Free space
Noisy and unpredictable channel
Broadcast channel, more user ->less BW per user
Higher equipment cost
Usually regulated spectrum and limited BW
Techno-politic
Need backbone systems in order to function properly

4
Ch. 1 Introduction to wireless Communications Systems

• In 1897, Guglielmo Marconi first demonstrated radio’s ability to

provide continuous contact with ships sailing the English
channel.

• During the past 10 years, fueled by

* Digital and RF circuit fabrication improvements
* New VLSI technologies
* Other miniaturization technologies
(e.g., passive components)
The mobile communications industry has grown by orders of magnitude.
• The trends will continue at an even greater pace during the next
decade.
5
 There is Grate Impact In Evolution of New wireless systems ,
Services And Technologies from Gov’t Regulatory agencies and
service Competitors.

Radio Spectrum usage is controlled by Gov’t not by

Service providers, Equipment manufacturers , Entrepreneurs Or Researchers.

Progressive involvement in Technology development is vital for gov’t.

6
1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications

7
1.2 Mobile Radiotelephone in the U.S.

• In 1934, AM mobile communication systems adopted for municipal police

radio systems and 58 police stations. (for public safety in US).
* vehicle ignition noise was a major problem.

• In 1946, FM mobile communications for the first public mobile telephone

service
* Each system used a single, high-powered transmitter and large tower to cover
distances of over 50 km.
* Used 120 kHz of RF bandwidth in a half-duplex mode. (push-to-talk release-to-listen
systems.) (speech occupies only 3KHz)
* Large RF bandwidth was used due to the technology difficulty (in mass-producing
tight RF filter and low-noise, front-end receiver amplifiers.)
• In 1950, the channel bandwidth was cut in half to 60kHZ -improved
technology.
8
By the mid 1960s, the channel bandwidth again was cut to 30 kHZ.

Thus, from WWII to the mid 1960s, the spectrum efficiency was
improved only a factor of 4 due to the technology advancements.

Also in 1950s and 1960s, automatic channel truncking was introduced

in IMTS(Improved Mobile Telephone Service.)
offering full duplex, auto-dial, auto-trunking
became saturated quickly
By 1976, has only twelve channels and could only serve 543 customers in New
York City of 10 millions populations.

9
• Cellular radiotelephone-Cellular concepts

* During 50’s and 60’s Developed in 1960s by AT & T Bell Lab and
other(Comm companies)
* The basic idea- Breaking the coverage zone) in to small cells ,each of which
reuse portions of spectrum to increase spectrum usage -at the expense of grater
system infrastructure.
* But the technology was not available to implement until the late 1970s. (mainly
the microprocessor and DSP technologies.)

• In 1983, AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System, IS-41) deployed

by Ameritech in Chicago.
* 40 MHz spectrum in 800 MHz band.
* 666 channels (+ 166 channels), (In 1989 FCC Granted an additional
channels)per Fig 1.2.
* Each duplex channel occupies > 60 kHz (30+30) FDMA to maximize capacity.
* Two cellular providers in each market.
10
11

4

12
 Early 1990’s to Compete with US cellular radio carriers-Specialized
Mobile Radio (SMR) may be an analog or digital trunked two-way radio
system, operated by a service in the VHF, 220, UHF, 700, 800 or 900
MHz bands. Some systems with advanced features are referred to as an
Enhanced Specialized Mobile Radio (ESMR).Specialized Mobile Radio
is a term defined in US Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
regulations.
PCS (personal communications service) is a wireless phone service
similar to cellular telephone service but emphasizing personal service
and extended mobility. PCS are provided in the "1900 MHz band"
(specifically 1850–1990 MHz)

13
14
15
 1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications
• Major Mobile Radio Systems
• 1897 Guglielmo Marconi first demonstrated radio’s ability
* 1934 - Police Radio uses conventional AM mobile communication system.
* 1935 - Edwin Armstrong demonstrate FM
* 1946 - First public mobile telephone service - push-to-talk
* 1960 - Improved Mobile Telephone Service, IMTS - full duplex
* 1960 - Bell Lab introduce the concept of Cellular mobile system
* 1968 - AT&T propose the concept of Cellular mobile system to FCC.
* 1976 - Bell Mobile Phone service, poor service due to call blocking
* 1983 - Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), FDMA, FM
* 1991 - Global System for Mobile (GSM), TDMA, GMSK
* 1991 - U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC) IS-54, TDMA, DQPSK
* 1993 - IS-95, CDMA, QPSK, BPSK
16
17
1.3 Mobile Radio Systems Around the World

18
1.4 Examples of Mobile Radio Systems

19
• In FDD,

* a device, called a duplexer, is used inside the subscriber unit to

enable the same antenna to be used for simultaneous
transmission and reception.

* to facilitate FDD, it is necessary to separate the XMIT and

RCVD frequencies by about 5% of the nominal RF frequency,
so that the duplexer can provide sufficient isolation while being
inexpensively manufactured .
* FDD is used Exclusively in analog mobile radio systems.

20
In TDD,

Possible to share single radio channel in Time (portion of time is used

to transmit from Base station to mobile & remaining time is used to
transmit from mobile to Base station )

only possible with digital transmission format and digital modulation.

very sensitive to timing. Consequently, only used for indoor or small

area wireless applications.

21
22
23
24
1.4.1. Paging Systems

25
• Conventional paging system send brief messages to a subscriber.
• Modern paging system: news headline, stock quotations, faxes, etc.
• Simultaneously broadcast paging message from each base station
(simulcasting)
• Large transmission power (order of kilo watts) to cover wide area.

• Paging receivers are simple and inexpensive, but the transmission system
required is quite sophisticated.

• Designed to provide ultra-reliable coverage, even inside buildings

• Buildings can attenuate radio signals by 20 or 30 dB, making the choice of

base station locations difficult for the paging companies.

• Small RF bandwidths are used to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio at each

paging receiver, so low data rates (6400 bps or less) are used.
26
1.4.2 Cordless Telephone Systems

27
• Cordless telephone systems are full duplex communication systems.
• First generation cordless phone
– in-home use
– communication to dedicated base unit
– few tens of meters
• Second generation cordless phone
– outdoor
– combine with paging system
– few hundred meters per station

28
1.4.3 Cellular Telephone Systems

29
30
• Provides wireless connection to the PSTN for any user location within the
radio range of the system.
• Characteristic
– Cellular systems Accommodate Large number of users over a Large
Geographic area with in a Limited frequency spectrum.
– Cellular systems Provides high quality service often comparable to that
of land line telephone system.
– The present day cellular communication uses a basic unit called “cell’’.
– Each “cell’’ consists of small hexagonal area with a base station located
at the center of the cell which communicates with the user.
– High capacity can be achieved by limiting the coverage of each base
station .
– Reuse of the radio frequency by the concept of “cell’’.
• Basic cellular system: mobile stations, base stations, and mobile switching
center(MSC). 31
– To accommodate multiple users Time Division multiple
Access (TDMA), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA),
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and their
hybrids are used.

– Numerous mobile radio standards have been deployed at

various places such as AMPS, PACS, GSM, NTT, PHS and
IS-95, each utilizing different set of frequencies and allocating
different number of users and channels .

– “Handoff ”a sophisticated switching technique enables

uninterrupted call when user moves from one “cell” to
another.
– Mobile Station (MS) or subscriber unit communicates to a
fixed Base Station (BS) which in turn communicates to the
desired user at the other end. 32

– MS consists of transceiver, control circuitry, duplexer and an

BS consists of transceiver and channel multiplexer along with antennas
mounted on the tower.

BS are also linked to a power source for the transmission of the radio
signals for communication and are connected to a fixed backbone
network.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is sometimes also called Mobile

Telephone Switching Office (MTSO).

The radio signals emitted by the BS decay as the signals travel away from
it.

The region over which the signal strength lies above such a threshold
value is known as the coverage area of a BS.

Fixed backbone network is a wired network that links all the base stations
33
and also the landline and other telephone networks through wires.
Simplex System: Simplex systems utilize simplex channels i.e., the
communication is unidirectional. The first user can communicate with the
second user. However, the second user cannot communicate with the first
user. One example of such a system is a pager.

Half Duplex System: Half duplex radio systems that use half duplex radio
channels allow for non-simultaneous bidirectional communication. The first
user can communicate with the second user but the second user can
communicate to the first user only after the first user has finished his
conversation. At a time, the user can only transmit or receive information. A
walkie-talkie is an example of a half duplex system which uses ‘push to
talk’ and ‘release to listen’ type of switches.

Full Duplex System: Full duplex systems allow two way simultaneous
communications. Both the users can communicate to each other
simultaneously. This can be done by providing two simultaneous but
separate channels to both the users. This is possible by one of the two34
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD): FDD supports two-way radio
communication by using two distinct radio channels.
One frequency channel is transmitted downstream from the BS to the MS
(forward channel).
A second frequency is used in the upstream direction and supports
transmission from the MS to the BS (reverse channel).

To mitigate self-interference between upstream and downstream

transmissions, a minimum amount of frequency separation must be
maintained between the frequency pair.

– Time Division Duplexing (TDD): TDD uses a single frequency band

to transmit signals in both the downstream and upstream directions.
TDD operates by toggling transmission directions over a time interval.
This toggling takes place very rapidly and is imperceptible to the user.

35
36
A full duplex mobile system can further be subdivided into two category
single MS for a dedicated BS,
and many MS for a single BS.
Cordless telephone systems are full duplex communication systems that use
radio to connect to a portable handset to a single dedicated BS.which is then
connected to a dedicated telephone line with a specific telephone number on
the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).

mobile system, is the example of the second category of a full duplex mobile
system where many users connect among themselves via a single BS.

Each cell uses a certain number of the available channels and a group of
adjacent cells together use all the available channels. Such a group is called a
cluster. This cluster can repeat itself and hence the same set of channels can
be used again and again.
37
Each cell has a low power transmitter with a coverage area equal to the area
of the cell. This technique of substituting a single high powered transmitter
by several low powered transmitters to support many users is the backbone
of the cellular concept.

There are four types of channels that take active part during a mobile call.

• Forward Voice Channel (FVC): This channel is used for the voice
transmission from the BS to the MS.
• Reverse Voice Channel (RVC): This is used for the voice transmission
from the MS to the BS.
• Forward Control Channel (FCC): Control channels are generally used
for controlling the activity of the call, i.e., they are used for setting up calls
and to divert the call to unused voice channels. Hence these are also called
setup channels. These channels transmit and receive call initiation and
service request messages. The FCC is used for control signaling purpose
from the BS to MS.
• 38
Reverse Control Channel (RCC): This is used for the call control purpose
from the MS to the BS. Control channels are usually monitored by
mobiles.

39
40
Basic cellular system

41
• Communication between the base station and mobile defined by a
standard -Common air Interface(CIA) specifies four different channels.
– forward voice channel (FVC): voice transmission from base station to
mobile.
– reverse voice channel (RVC): voice transnmission from mobile to
base station.
– forward control channels (FCC): initiating mobile call from base
station to mobile.
– reverse control channel (RCC): initiating mobile call from mobile to
base station.

– Typical MSC handles 100000 cellular subscribers and 5000

simultaneous conversations at a time and accomadate all biling and
system maintenece functions,as well. In large cities several MSC’s
are used by single carrier.
42
PSTN (public switched telephone network)

43
44
 PSTN (public switched telephone network)

is the world's collection of interconnected voice-

oriented public telephone networks, both commercial
and government-owned. It's also referred to as the
Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS). It's the
aggregation of circuit-switching telephone networks
that has evolved from the days of Alexander Graham
Bell ("Doctor Watson, come here!"). Today, it is
almost entirely digital in technology except for the
final link from the central (local) telephone office to
the user.

45
 How a Cellular Telephone Call is Made i.e. Making a Call

When a mobile is idle, i.e., it is not experiencing the process of

a call, then it searches all the FCCs to determine the one with the
highest signal strength. The mobile then monitors this particular FCC.

However, when the signal strength falls below a particular

threshold that is insufficient for a call to take place, the mobile again
searches all the FCCs for the one with the highest signal strength.

For a particular country or continent, the control channels will be

the same. So all mobiles in that country or continent will search among
the same set of control channels. However, when a mobile moves to a
different country or continent, then the control channels for that particular
location will be different and hence the mobile will not work.
46
 Each mobile has a mobile identification number(MIN)
(subscribers telephone numbers).
When a user wants to make a call, he sends a call request to the
MSC on the reverse control channel.
He also sends the MIN of the person to whom the call has to be
made. The MSC then sends this MIN to all the base stations.

The base station transmits this MIN and all the mobiles within the
coverage area of that base station receive the MIN and match it
with their own.
If the MIN matches with a particular MS, that mobile sends an
acknowledgment to the BS. The BS then informs the MSC that
the mobile is within its coverage area.
47
The MSC then instructs the base station to access specific unused
voice channel pair. The base station then sends a message to the
mobile to move to the particular channels and it also sends a
signal to the mobile for ringing.
In order to maintain the quality of the call, the MSC adjusts
the transmitted power of the mobile which is usually expressed in
dB or dBm. When a mobile moves from the coverage area of one
base station to the coverage area of another base station
i.e., from one “cell” to another “cell”, then the signal strength of
the initial base station may not be sufficient to continue the call in
progress.
So the call has to be transferred to the other base station.
This is called handoff. In such cases, in order to maintain the call,
the MSC transfers the call to one of the unused voice channels of
the new base station or it transfers the control of the current 48voice
49
50
51
The SCM (Station Class Mark) is a 4 bit number
which holds three different pieces of information.
Your cellular telephone transmits this information
(and more) to the cell tower. Which indicates what
the maximum transmitted power level for the 52
perticular usar
53
1.4.3.1 How a Cellular Telephone Call is Made

54
1.4.4 Comparison of Common Mobile Radio Systems

55
1.5 Trends in Cellular Radio+Personal Comm.

• Personal Communication Services (PCS) or PCN.

* voice+data (PDA)
* wireless internet services
• Low earth orbit (LEO) satellite communication

• Indoor Wireless Networking

* WLAN
* HyperLAN
* Bluetooth(PAN)
* BRAN

• Future Public Land Mobile Telephone System (FPLMTS)---A worldwide

Standard
* 3G, 4G
* Software-defined Radio

• Fixed Wireless Access

* WLL
* LMDS

56
The Cellular Concept-
Fundamentals of design

57
Frequency Reuse

Channel Assignment Strategies

Handoff Strategies

Interference and System Capacity

Improving Capacity In Cellular Systems

58
Frequency Reusing

Early Mobile Telephone System:

Traditional mobile service was similar to radio/TV broadcasting:

One very powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in a large area.

Cellular System
In a cellular system, instead of using one powerful transmitter,
many low-power transmitters were placed throughout a coverage area

59
The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the problem of
spectral congestion and user capacity.

It offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation without

any major technological changes.

60
A service area is split into small geographic areas, called cells.

Each cell covers only a small portion of the service area.

Each cellular base station is allocated a group (portion) of radio channels.

Nearby base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the
interference between base stations is minimized.

By limiting the coverage area of a base station, the same group of channels
may be reused by different cells far away.

The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the
cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency
61
planning.
 Factors

Equal area

No overlap between cells

62
Hexagon

closely approximates a circular radiation pattern which would occur for

an omni-directional antenna.

63
64
Frequency Reuse: Excitation modes

65
Frequency Reuse : The concept of Cluster

66
Frequency Reuse: Reuse Planning

67
Frequency Reuse: Reuse Planning

68
69
70
71
Channel Assignment Strategies

Objectives:
Increasing capacity
Minimizing interference

Classification:
Fixed channel assignment strategies
Dynamic channel assignment strategies

72
73
 FIXED

MSC supervises Not Disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in
the donor cell.

DYNAMIC :

It requires MSC to collect real time data on channel occupancy, traffic

distribution, and radio signal strength indications (RSSI)of all channels on a
continuous basis.

It increases the storage and computational load on the system but provides
advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased probability of
blocked calls(Increases the trunking capacity since all the available
channels in a markets are accessible to all of the cells. )
74
 Handoff Strategies
Handoff: When a mobile moves into a different cell
while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station.

• Important task in any cellular radio system .

•Handoffs must be performed successfully, as
infrequently as possible, and not visible to users.
When designing handoff, it is important to bear in mind
that it requires certain time to complete the handoff.

75
How to meet these requirements?

Specify an optimum signal level to initiate a handoff.

Signal level is decided as minimum usable signal level for
acceptable voice quality at the base station receiver(90
dBm to 100dBm).

Decide optimally when to handoff

A slightly stronger signal level is used as a threshold at
which a handoff is made.

76
 Margin Δ =Pr handoff – Pr minimum usable

should be optimal value(Cont be too large or too small).

If Δ is too large: too many handoffs(Unnecessary handoff which

burdens the MSC)
If Δ is too small: (Insufficient time to complete handoff ) chance of
call being lost(due to Weak signal conditions)

Note that there is a time delay to complete the handoff.

Excessive delay at the MSC may occur during high traffic conditions
- due to computational loading at the MSC
- no channels are available on any of the nearby base stations

77
78
79
Dwell Time is the time over which a call may be maintained within a cell,
without Hand off is called Dwell Time.

Dwell Time of particular user depends on so many factors

Propagation
Interference
Distance b/n subscriber and BS
&
other time varying effects.

Locator receiver : Is used to scan and determine signal strength of mobile users
which are in neighboring cells.

Locator receiver is controlled by MSC .

Based on Locator receiver signal strength information MSC decides if a
handoff is necessary or not.
80
A mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) is a process used in GSM cellular
networks where a mobile phone assists/helps the cellular base station to
transfer a call to another base station.

Mobile assisted handoff can also be referred to as mobile assisted handover.

81
 Handoffs In Different Generations

In 1G analog cellular systems, the signal

strength measurements were made by the BS and in
turn supervised by the MSC. The handoffs in this
generation can be termed as Network Controlled
Hand-Off (NCHO).

The BS monitors the signal strengths of voice

channels to determine the relative positions of the
subscriber.
82
Locator receiver-Placed on the BS
Controlled by -MSC
Purpouse:monitor the signal strengths of the users
in the neighboring cells which appear to be in need
of handoff.

MSC decides whether a handoff is required or not.

approximate time to handoff Successful was about
5-10 s.
Required ∆ value of to be in the order of 6dB to
12dB. 83
2G systems-MSC was relieved
handoff decisions were mobile assisted and therefore
it is called Mobile Assisted Handoff.

In MAHO mobile center measures the power

changes received from nearby base stations
&
and notifies the two BS. Accordingly the two BS
communicate and channel transfer occurs.

84
As compared to 1G-Circuit complexity increased
delay in handoff was reduced
to 1-5 s.
∆ order of 0 -5 dB.

However, even this amount of delay could create a

communication in the pause.

85
In the current 3G systems, the MS measures the
power from adjacent BS and automatically
upgrades the channels to its nearer BS. Hence this
can be termed as Mobile Controlled Hand-Off
(MCHO).

Delay during handoff is only 100 ms and the value

of ∆ is around 20 dBm. The Quality Of Service
(QoS) has improved a lot although the of the
circuitry has further increased which is inevitable.

86
Handoff in CDMA: In spread spectrum cellular
systems, the mobiles share the same channels in
every cell.
The MSC evaluates the signal strengths received
from different BS for a single user and then shifts
the user from one BS to the other without actually
changing the channel. These types of handoffs are
called as soft handoff as there is no change in the
channel.

87
 Factors Influencing Handoffs
• Transmitted power: as we know that the
transmission power is different for different cells,
the handoff threshold or the power margin varies
from cell to cell.
• Received power: the received power mostly
depends on the Line of Sight (LoS) path between
the user and the BS. Especially when the user is
on the boundary of the two cells, the LoS path
plays a critical role in handoffs and therefore the
power margin ∆ depends on the minimum 88

received power value from cell to cell.

(c) Area and shape of the cell: Apart from the power
levels, the cell structure also a plays an important
role in the handoff process.

(d) Mobility of users: The number of mobile users

entering or going out of a particular cell, also fixes
the handoff strategy of a cell.

89
90
91
 Practical Problems in Hando Scenario
Different speed of mobile users: with the increase
of mobile users in urban areas, microcells are
introduced in the cells to increase the capacity. The
users with high speed frequently crossing the
micro-cells become burdened to MSC as it has to
take care of handoffs.
Several schemes thus have been designed to
handle the simultaneous traffic of high speed and
low speed users while minimizing the handoffs
intervention from the MSC, one of them being the
92
`Umbrella Cell' approach.
Umbrella cell is co-located with few other
microcells.This technique provides large area
coverage to high speed users while providing small
area coverage to users traveling at low speed. By
using different antenna heights and different power
levels, it is possible to provide larger and smaller
cells at a same location.

93
 The BS can measure the speed of the user by its
short term average signal strength over the RVC and
decides which cell to handle that call. If the speed is
less, then the corresponding microcell handles the
call so that there is good corner coverage. This
approach assures that handoffs are minimized for
high speed users and provides additional microcell
channels for pedestrian users.
(b) Cell dragging problem: this is another practical
problem in the urban area with additional microcells.
For example, consider there is a LOS path between
the MS and BS1 while the user is in the cell covered
94
Since there is a LOS with the BS1, the signal
strength received from BS1 would be greater than
that received from BS2. However, since the user is
in cell covered by BS2, handoffs cannot take place
and as a result, it experiences a lot of interferences.
This problem can be solved by judiciously
choosing the handoff threshold along with
adjusting the coverage area.

95
(c) Inter-system handoff: if one user is leaving the
coverage area of one MSC and is entering the area
of another MSC, then the call might be lost if there
is no handoffs in this case too. Such a handoff is
called inter-system handoff and in order to facilitate
this, mobiles usually have roaming facility.

96
Interference and System
Capacity

97
 Interference
• Interference is a major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio systems.
• (In comparison with wired comm. Systems, the amount
and sources of interferences in Wireless Systems are
greater.)
• Creates bottleneck in increasing capacity
• Sources of interference are:
1. Mobile Stations
2. Neighboring Cells
3. The same frequency cells
98
4. Non-cellular signals in the same spectrum
Interference in Voice Channels: Cross-Talk
Control Channels: missed/blocked calls

Urban areas usually have more interference:

a) Greater RF Noise Floor
b) More Number of Mobiles
c) More Number of base stations.

99
 Types

1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI)

2) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
3) Other services: like a competitor cellular
service in the same area.

100
(1)Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity
• The cells that use the same set of frequencies are
called co-channel cells.
• The interference between signals from these cells
is called Co-Channel Interference (CCI).
• Cannot be controlled by increasing RF power.
rather, this will increase CCI.
• Depends on minimum distance between co-
channels.

101
 The yellow cells use the same
set of frequency channels, and
hence, interfere with each
other
 In the cellular system there
are 6 first- layer co-channels

• In constant cell size and RF power, CCI is a function of

Distance between the co-channel cells(D), and the size
of each cell (R).
• Increasing ratio D/R, CCI decreases.
102
• Define Channel Reuse Ratio = Q = D/R
• For hexagonal geometry, D/R can be calculated:

• Smaller Q provides larger capacity, since that

would mean smaller N. (Capacity ∝ 1/N).
• Larger Q improves quality, owing to less CCI.

For N=3, Q=3, N=7, Q=4.58,

N=12, Q=6, 103 N=13, Q=6.24

104
• Signal-to-interference ratio

• S is the power of the signal of interest and is the

power of kth interference.

• The signal strength at distance d from a source is

• That is, received signal power is inversely related to nth

power of the distance.
• where n = path loss exponent
105
• Then we can express the SIR in terms of distance

• where the denominator represents the users in

neighboring clusters using the same channel

• Let be the distance between cell

centers. Then

106
Note how C/I improves with the frequency reuse
N.
Analog systems: U.S. AMPS required C/I ~=
18dB For n = 4, the reuse factor for AMPS is N
≥ 6.49, so N = 7.
Now, let us consider the worst case for a cluster
size of N= 7. The mobile is at the edge of the
cell. Express C/I as a function of actual
distances.

107
 Cochannel Interference
First tier cochannel
Second tier cochannel Base Station
Base Station

R
D6
D5
D1

D4 Mobile Station
D2

D3

Serving Base Station

108
 Worst Case of Cochannel Interference

D6
R
D5
D1
Mobile Station
D4 D2

D3

Serving Base Station Co-channel Base Station

109
 Worst Case Design
Worst case carrier-to-interference ratio

110
• Increasing N from 7 to 12, brings C/I above the
18dB level. However, the system capacity is
decreased.
• Reduction of capacity by 7/12 for taking care of
the worst case situation when CIR ~= 17.4 dB is
not justified because this situation will occur very
rarely.
• Conclusion: Co-Channel Interference controls the
link performance which then decides Frequency
Reuse Plan, and System Capacity.

111
112
 Adjacent Channel Interference
• Interference from channels that are adjacent in
frequency.
• This occurs when imperfect receiver Filters allow
nearby frequencies to leak into the pass band.
• The more adjacent channels are packed into the
channel block, the higher the spectral efficiency,
provided that the performance degradation can be
tolerated in the system link budget.
• This problem is enhanced if the adjacent channel user is
transmitting in a close range compared to the
subscriber's receiver while the receiver attempts to
receive a base station on the
113 channel. This is called
This effect can also occur if a mobile close to a base
station transmits on a channel close to one being used by a
weak mobile. This problem might occur if the base station
has problem in discriminating the mobile user from the
"bleed over" caused by the close adjacent channel mobile.

114
 Near-Far Effect: Case 1

• The Mobile receiver is captured by the unintended, unknown transmitter, instead

of the desired base station

115
 Near-Far Effect: Case 2

• The Base Station faces difficulty in recognizing the actual

mobile user, when the adjacent channel bleed over is too
high.
116
Adjacent channel interference occurs more frequently in
small cell clusters and heavily used cells. If the frequency
separation between the channels is kept large this
interference can be reduced to some extent.

Efficient assignment strategies are very much important in

making the interference as less as possible.

If a mobile is 10 times close to the base station than other

mobile and has energy spill out of its pass band, then SIR
for weak mobile is Approximately
117
 Minimization of ACI
(1) Careful Filtering ---- min. leakage or sharp transition
(2) Better Channel Assignment Strategy

• Channels in a cell need not be adjacent: For channels

within a cell, Keep frequency separation as large as
possible.
• Sequentially assigning cells the successive frequency
channels.

118
Also, secondary level of interference can be reduced by not
assigning adjacent channels to neighboring cells.
For tolerable ACI, we either need to increase the frequency
separation or reduce the pass band BW.

119
 Enhancing Capacity And Cell Coverage
In designing a cellular layout, the two parameters
which are of great significance are the cell radius R and
the cluster size N, and we have also seen that co-channel
cell distance
Cell radius must be as large as possible: Every cell requires an investment in a
tower, land on which the tower is placed, and radio transmission equipment and
so a large cell size minimizes the cost per subscriber.

The SNR is determined by several factors such as the antenna height,

transmitter power, receiver noise figure etc.
Geographic area covered by a cluster is
If the total serviced area is Atotal, then the number of clusters M that could be
accommodated is given by
120
 Cell radius is determined by a trade-off : R should be as large as
possible to minimize the cost of the installation per subscriber, but R should be
as small as possible to maximize the number of customers that the system can
accommodate.
In determining the value of N, another trade-off is encountered in that
N must be small to accommodate large number of subscribers, but should be
sufficiently large so as to minimize the interference effects.
two methods for dealing with an increasing subscriber density: Cell Splitting
and Sectoring

The other method, microcell zone concept can treated as enhancing the QoS in
a cellular system.

121
 Channel Planning for Wireless Systems
• Judicious assignment of the appropriate radio channels a more difficult problem in
practice. Theoretical analysis provides a guideline.

• In general 5% of the available spectrum is reserved for control channels

• Frequency reuse of control channels more conservative.

• In CDMA N=1, however, practical difficulties forces some kind of frequency

planning.

122
 Example 2.3
• In the US APMS system the total number of channels is: 416
• Out if these 395 are used as voice channels, whereas 21 are used a
control channels.
• Two operators share these 416 channels equally.
• Channel allocation according to Table 3.2 (next slide). Using subsets
• For N=7, each cell in a cluster will have 1 control channel,
neighboring clusters will have remaining 14 control channels.
• Control channels will be thus be reused according to N=21 pattern.

123
124
Key Definitions for Trunked Radio

125
 Improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems.

In designing a cellular layout two parameters the cell radius R and the
cluster size N has great significance.
co-channel cell distance

Cell radius governs both geographical area covered by a cell and also
the number of subscribers who can be serviced, given the subscriber density.
cell radius must be as large as possible
Because, every cell requires an investment in a tower, land on which the tower
is placed, and radio transmission equipment and so a large cell size minimizes
the cost per subscriber.

126
If the total serviced area is Atotal, then the number of clusters M that could be
accommodated is given by

Available channels are reused in every cluster Hence, to make the maximum
number of channels available to subscribers, the number of clusters M should
be large , for this with above Equation the cell radius should be small.

However, cell radius is determined by a trade-off: R should be as large

as possible to minimize the cost of the installation per subscriber, but R
should be as small as possible to maximize the number of customers that the
system can accommodate.
Now, if the cell radius R is fixed, then the number of clusters could be
maximized by minimizing the size of a cluster N.

127
 Size of a cluster depends on the frequency reuse ratio Q. Hence, in
determining the value of N, another trade-o is encountered in that N must be
small to accommodate large number of subscribers, but should be sufficiently
large so as to minimize the interference effects.

two methods for dealing with an increasing subscriber density: Cell Splitting
and Sectoring. The other method, microcell zone concept can treated as
enhancing the QoS in a cellular system.

128
CELL SPLITTING

129
 Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell
Into smaller cells such that each smaller cell has its own base station
with
Reduced antenna height and
Reduced transmitter power .
Preserve frequency reuse plan.
It increases the capacity of a cellular system since number of times
channels are reused increases.
The distance between co-channel cells also reduces to half (D=D/2)
as the cell radius is reduced to half (R =R /2).

Thus the co-channel reuse ratio (Q=D/R) Remains same.

130
131
132
133
Cell Splitting

Large cell (low

density)

Small cell
(high density)
Smaller cell
(higher density)

Depending on traffic patterns the smaller

cells may be activated/deactivated in order
to efficiently use cell resources.
134
135
 Cell Sectoring by Antenna Design

c
c
120o 120o
a
b a
b

(a). Omni (b). 120o sector (c). 120o sector (alternate)

d f
90o e 60o a
a
c
d b
b c

(d). 90o sector (e). 60o sector

136
 Cell Sectoring by Antenna Design

 Placing directional transmitters at corners where three

adjacent cells meet

C
X
A

137
138
Worst Case for Forward Channel Interference in
Three-sectors

BS
D + 0.7R
BS
MS
R
BS
D

BS
C C
 n
I q  q  0.7  n
q  D/ R
139
140
141
142
143
144
 Trunking and Grade of Service (GOS)
Trunking:
• A means for providing access to users on demand from available
pool of channels.
• With trunking, a small number of channels can accommodate large
number of random users.
• Telephone companies use trunking theory to determine number of circuits
required.
• Trunking theory is about how a population can be handled by a limited
number of servers.

145
 Terminology:
1. Traffic intensity is measured in Erlangs:
* One Erlang: traffic in a channel completely occupied. 0.5 Erlang: channel
occupied 30 minutes in an hour.
2. Grade of Service (GOS): probability that a call is blocked (or delayed).
3. Set-Up Time: time to allocate a channel.
4. Blocked Call: Call that cannot be completed at time of request due to
congestion. Also referred to as Lost Call.
5. Holding Time: (H) average duration of typical call.
6. Load: Traffic intensity across the whole system.
7. Request Rate: (λ) average number of call requests per unit time.

146
Traffic Measurement (Erlangs)

147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
 Erlang C Model –Blocked calls cleared
• A different type of trunked system queues blocked calls –Blocked Calls Delayed.
This is known as an Erlang C model.

• Procedure:
* Determine Pr[delay> 0] = probability of a delay from the chart.
* Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ] = probability that the delay is longer than t, given that
there is a delay
Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ] =exp[-(C-A)t /H ]
* Unconditional Probability of delay > t :
Pr[delay > t ] = Pr[delay > 0] Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ]
* Average delay time D = Pr[delay > 0] H/ (C-A)

159
 Erlang C Formula
• The likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a channel is
determined by Erlang C formula:

160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
 Erlang C Model –Blocked calls cleared
• A different type of trunked system queues blocked calls –Blocked Calls Delayed.
This is known as an Erlang C model.

• Procedure:
* Determine Pr[delay> 0] = probability of a delay from the chart.
* Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ] = probability that the delay is longer than t, given that
there is a delay
Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ] =exp[-(C-A)t /H ]
* Unconditional Probability of delay > t :
Pr[delay > t ] = Pr[delay > 0] Pr[delay > t | delay > 0 ]
* Average delay time D = Pr[delay > 0] H/ (C-A)

168
 Erlang C Formula
• The likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a channel is
determined by Erlang C formula:

169
170
171
172
• Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-
Scale Path Loss

173
 Basics

• When electrons move, they create electromagnetic

waves that can propagate through the space
• Number of oscillations per second of an
electromagnetic wave is called its frequency, f,
measured in Hertz.
• The distance between two consecutive maxima is called
the wavelength, designated by l.

174
 I. Problems Unique to Wireless (not wired) systems:

• Paths can vary from simple line-of-sight to ones that

are severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and
foliage.
• Radio channels are extremely random and difficult to
analyze.
• Interference from other service providers
* out-of-band non-linear Tx emissions

175
Interference from other users (same network)
CCI due to frequency reuse
ACI due to Tx/Rx design limitations & large users
sharing finite BW

Shadowing
Obstructions to line-of-sight paths cause areas of weak
received signal strength

176
 Propagation Models
• We are interested in propagation characteristics and
models for waves with frequencyy in range: few MHz to
a few GHz
• Modeling radio channel is important for:
• Determining the coverage area of a transmitter
»Determine the transmitter power requirement.
»Determine the battery lifetime.
• Finding modulation and coding schemes to improve
the channel quality
»Determine the maximum channel capacity
177
Transmission path between sender and receiver could
be

Line-of-Sight (LOS)
Obstructed by buildings, mountains and foliage

Even speed of motion effects the fading

characteristics of the channel

178
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms
• The physical mechanisms that govern radio
propagation are complex and diverse, but generally
attributed to the following three factors
1.Reflection
2.Diffraction
3.Scattering
* Reflection
• Occurs when waves impinges upon an obstruction
that is much larger in size compared to the
wavelength of the signal.
179
Example: Reflections from earth and buildings These
reflections may interfere with the original signal
constructively or destructively

180
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms
* Diffraction
• Occurs when the radio path between sender and
receiver is obstructed by an impenetrable body and
by a surface with sharp irregularities (edges)
• Explains how radio signals can travel urban and
rural environments without a line-of-sight path

* Scattering
• Occurs when the radio channel contains objects
whose sizes are on the order of the wavelength or
less of the propagating wave and also when the
number of obstacles are quite large.
• They are produced by small objects, rough
181
surfaces and other irregularities on the channel
Follows same principles with diffraction
Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many
directions
Lamp posts and street signs may cause scattering

182
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms

transmitter R
Street
S
D
D

R: Reflection receiver
Building Blocks
D: Diffraction
S: Scattering

183
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms

• As a mobile moves through a coverage area, these 3

mechanisms have an impact on the instantaneous
received signal strength.
• If a mobile does have a clear line of sight path
to the base-station, than diffraction and
scattering will not dominate the propagation.

• If a mobile is at a street level without LOS,

then diffraction and scattering will probably
dominate the propagation. 184
 Radio Propagation Models

• As the mobile moves over small distances, the

instantaneous received signal will fluctuate rapidly
giving rise to small-scale fading
* The reason is that the signal is the sum of many
contributors coming from different directions and
since the phases of these signals are random, the sum
behave like a noise (Rayleigh fading).
* In small scale fading, the received signal power may
change as much as 3 or 4 orders of magnitude (30dB
or 40dB), when the receiver is only moved a fraction
of the wavelength. 185
II. Radio Signal Propagation

186
The smoothed line is the average signal strength. The actual is the
more jagged line.

Actual received signal strength can vary by more than 20 dB over a

few centimeters.

The average signal strength decays with distance from the

transmitter, and depends on terrain and obstructions.

187
Two basic goals of propagation modeling:
1) Predict magnitude and rate (speed) of received signal
strength fluctuations over short distances/time
durations
“short” → typically a few wavelengths (λ) or seconds
at 1 GHz, λ = c/f = 3x108 / 1x109 = 0.3 meters
received signal strength can vary drastically by 30 to
40 dB

188
small-scale fluctuations → called _____ (Chapter 5)
caused by received signal coming from a sum of many
signals coming together at a receiver
multiple signals come from reflections and scattering
these signals can destructively add together by being
out-of-phase

189
2) Predict average received signal strength for given
Tx/Rx separation
characterize received signal strength over distances
from 20 m to 20 km
Large-scale radio wave propagation model models
needed to estimate coverage area of base station
in general, large scale path loss decays gradually with
distance from the transmitter ,will also be affected by
geographical features like hills and buildings

190
• Free-Space Signal Propagation
* clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path → satellite and fixed microwave
* Friis transmission formula → Rx power (Pr) vs. T-R separation (d)

191
 where
• Pt = Tx power (W)
• G = Tx or Rx antenna gain (unitless)
 relative to isotropic source (ideal antenna which radiates power
uniformly in all directions)
 in the __________ of an antenna (beyond a few meters)
 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
EIRP = PtGt
Represents the max. radiated power available from a
Tx in the direction of max. antenna gain, as compare
to an isotropic radiator

192
193
• λ = wavelength = c / f (m). A term is related to
antenna gain.
• So, as frequency increases, what happens to the
propagation characteristics?

• L = system losses (antennas, transmission lines between

equipment and antennas, atmosphere, etc.)
* unitless
* L = 1 for zero loss
* L > 1 in general
194
195
• d = T-R separation distance (m)
* Signal fades in proportion to d2
* We can view signal strength as related to the density of the signal across
a large sphere.
* This is the surface area of a sphere with radius d.
* So, a term in the denominator is related to distance and density of surface
area across a sphere.

196
197
• ⇒ Path Loss (PL) in dB:

198
199
• d2 → power law relationship
* Pr decreases at rate of proportional to d2
* Pr decreases at rate of 20 dB/decade (for line-of-sight, even worse for other
cases)
* For example, path loses 20 dB from 100 m to 1 km
* Comes from the d2 relationship for surface area.

• Note: Negative “loss” = “gain”

200
201
 III. Reflections
• There are three basic propagation mechanisms in addition to
line-of-sight paths
* Reflection - Waves bouncing off of objects of large dimensions
* Diffraction - Waves bending around sharp edges of objects
* Scattering - Waves traveling through a medium with small objects in it
(foliage, street signs, lamp posts, etc.) or reflecting off rough surfaces

202
Relating power to electric field

203
204
205
 1/d represents radiation field component
1/d2 represents induction field component
1/d3 represents electrostatic field components.
T the region in far field electrostatic and inductive fields become negligible
and only radiated field components of and need to be
considered.

206
207
Reflection:
When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another
medium having different electric properties, the wave is partially reflected and
partially transmitted.

If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, half of the energy is

transmitted into the second medium and half of the energy is reflected back
into the first medium and therefore no loss of energy in absorption.

If the second medium is perfect conductor all incident energy is reflected back
into the first medium without loss of energy.
The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted waves may be
related to the incident wave in the medium of origin through the Fresnel
reflection coefficient (Γ).

The reflection coefficient is depends on wave polarization, angle of incidence,

and frequency of propagating wave. 208
Reflection from Dielectrics:

209
 electromagnetic wave incident at an angle θi with the plane of the boundary
between two dielectric media.
The part of the energy is reflected back to the first media at an angle θr , and
part of the energy is transmitted into the second media at an angle θt .

The nature of reflection varies with direction of polarization of the E-filed.

The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the incident, reflected
and transmitted rays.
The subscripts i , r ,t refer to the incident reflected and transmitted
fields respectively.
ɛ μ σ represent the permittivity, permeability and conductance of the two media
respectively .

210
 If dielectric constant of perfect (lossless) material is related to a relative
value of permittivity ɛr such that ɛ=ɛ0 ɛr.
Where ɛ0 is a constant is given by 8.85 X 10-12 F/m.

If a dielectric material is lossy, it will absorb power and may be described by a

complex dielectric constant given by,
If a dielectric material is loss, it will absent port and may be described by a
where
comple( dielectric constant is given by,

σ conductivity of the material measured in Siemens/meter.

The Ɛr and σ are insensitive to operating frequency when material is good
conductor.

211
The reflection coefficient for the two cases of parallel(in the plane) and
perpendicular (normal to the plane)E-field polarization at the boundary of two
dielectrics is given by

Where, ɳi is the intrinsic impedance of ith medium and is given by

the ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane wave in the
particular medium.
212
The boundary conditions at the surface of incidence obey snell’s law in above
fig is given by

The boundary conditions from Maxwell’s equation used to derive equation

For the case when the first medium is free space and μ1= μ2 , the reflection
coefficient for the two cases of vertical and horizontal polarization can be
simplified to
213
for the case of elliptical polarized waves, the wave may be broken
down(depolarized) into its vertical and horizontal E-filed components,
and superposition may be applied to determine transmitted and reflected
waves.
214
(ii)Brewster angle:

It is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin. It occurs

when the incident angle θ is such that the reflection co-efficient is equal to
zero. The Brewster angle is given by the value of θB which satisfies.

215
216
217
218
219
220
Diffraction geometry

221
Fresnel Screens

222
 Fresnel diffraction geometry

223
Figure 4.12 Illustration of Fresnel zones for different knife-edge diffraction scenarios.
Knife-edge diffraction

224
225
Knife-edge diffraction loss

226
227
228
Multiple knife-edge diffraction

229
230
231
232
233
234
235