Principles of Fluid Flow
Principles of Fluid Flow
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Classification of flows
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Classification of flows
Steady flow
– This is the type of flow in which the various parameters of flow at any
point do not change with time
– Thus
;
Unsteady flow
– This is that type of flow in which the velocity, pressure, density or
cross-section at a point change with respect to time. Thus
;
3
Classification of flows
Uniform flow
– This is the type of flow in which the velocity and other flow
parameters at any given time does not change with respect to space.
– Thus
;
Non-uniform flow
– This is that type of flow in which the velocity and other flow
parameters at any given time changes with respect to space. Thus
;
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Classification of flows
• Combining the above, one can classify any flow into one of four types:
i. Steady uniform flow: conditions do not change with position in the stream or
with time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at
constant velocity.
ii. Steady non-uniform flow: conditions change from point to point in the stream
but do not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with
constant velocity at the inlet – velocity will change as flow moves along the
length of the pipe toward the exit.
iii. Unsteady uniform flow: at a given instant in time the conditions at every point
are the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant
diameter connected to a pump, pumping at a constant rate which is then
switched off.
iv. Unsteady non-uniform flow: every condition of the flow may change from
point to point and with time at every point. An example is surface waves in an
open channel. 5
Classification of flows
Rotational flow
– A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles while
moving in the direction of flow rotate about their mass
centres.
– Flow near a solid boundary is rotational.
Irrotational flow
– A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particles while
moving in the direction of flow do not rotate about their
mass centres.
– Flow outside the boundary layer is generally considered
irrotational.
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Classification of flows
Laminar flow
‒ A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the
individual particles do not cross one another and
moves along well defined paths.
‒ This type of flow is also called streamline flow or
viscous flow.
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Classification of flows
Turbulent flow
‒ A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles
move in a zigzag way.
‒ The motion is not orderly.
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Classification of flows
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Classification of flows
• Compressible flow
‒ It is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid
changes from point to point.
‒ Flow of gases through orifices, nozzles, gas turbines, is
an example.
• Incompressible flow
– It is that type of flow in which density is constant for the
fluid.
– Liquids are generally considered flowing
incompressibly.
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Classification of flows
• Ideal flow
‒ Ideal fluid is non-viscous and incompressible.
‒ Shear force between the boundary surface and fluid or
between the fluid layers is absent and only pressure forces
and boundary forces are controlling.
• Real flow
‒ Real fluids have viscosity and surface shear forces are
involved during flow.
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FLOW VISUALISATION
• Flow can be visualised in one of the following forms:
a) Pathline or particle path
b) Streakline or dyeline
c) Streamlines
d) Streamtube
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FLOW VISUALISATION
• Pathline or particle path
‒ the line followed by a particle in the fluid released at some point in the
flow.
‒ A pathline represents an integrated history of where a fluid particle has
been.
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FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streakline or dyeline
‒ is an instantaneous line whose points are occupied by particles which
have earlier passed through a prescribed point in space
‒ can be formed by injecting dye continuously into the fluid at a fixed point
in space
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FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streamlines:
‒ These are imaginary lines joining points of equal velocity –
velocity contours.
‒ At all points the direction of the streamline is the direction of the
fluid velocity.
‒ Close to the wall the velocity is parallel to the wall so the
streamline is also parallel to the wall.
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FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streamline properties
a) Since fluid moves in the same direction as streamline, fluid
cannot cross a streamline
b) Streamlines cannot cross each other, meaning that any particle
of fluid starting on one streamline will stay on that same
streamline throughout the fluid.
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FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streamtube
‒ a useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only a part
of the total fluid in isolation from the rest.
‒ This is done by imagining a tubular surface formed by streamlines
along which the fluid flows.
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FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
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FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
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FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
‒ Where A is the area of the cross-section and u is the average velocity of flow.
‒ Its units are m3/s.
• Weight flow rate
‒ The weight flow rate W is related to Q by
W Q
‒ Where γ is the specific weight of the fluid.
‒ The units of W are N/s.
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FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
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CONTINUITY OF FLOW
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CONTINUITY OF FLOW
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CONTINUITY OF FLOW
1A1u1 2A2u2
• By the continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the same at each
section – the mass going into the pipe is equal to the mass going out of the
pipe.
1 A1u1 2 A2u2
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APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
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APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the junction
1Q1 2 Q2 3Q3
When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water)
Q1 Q2 Q3
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Example
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Potential energy
It is energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its position.
Potential energy = mgz
Potential energy per unit weight = z
Kinetic energy
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its
motion or velocity.
1
Kinetic energy mu 2
2
u2
Kinetic energy per unit weight
2g 32
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Pressure energy
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its
existing pressure.
At any given cross-section, the pressure generates a force and,
as the fluid flows, this cross-section will move forward and so
work will be done.
If the pressure at section AB is p and the area of the cross-section
is A,
Force exerted on AB = pA
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Pressure energy
After a weight mg of fluid has flowed along the stream tube,
section AB will have moved to A’B’:
mg m
Volume passing AB
g
Therefore,
m
Distance AA'
A
m pm
Work done Force Distance AA' pA
A
p
Work done per unit weigh t
g
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Total energy
Total energy of a liquid, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy,
kinetic energy and pressure energy.i.e.
2
P u
H z
g 2 g
All the terms in the energy equation have units of length i.e. metres,
H total head
p
g pressure head
2
u kinetic / velocity head
2g
z potential / elevation head
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
BERNOULLI EQUATION
Bernoulli's equation can be applied
between two points, 1 and 2, on the
streamline.
By the principle of conservation of
energy the total energy in the
system does not change, thus the
total head does not change. So
p1 u12 p2 u22
Total head at 1 = total head at 2 z1 z2
g 2 g g 2 g
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
• If, on the other hand, the water was flowing with velocity u,2 the
levels in the piezometers would fall by an amount equal u 2 g
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
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LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION
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Example
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EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
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PITOT-TUBE
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PITOT-TUBE
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PITOT-TUBE
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PITOT-TUBE
• Apply Bernoulli along the central
streamline from a point upstream where
the velocity is u1 and the pressure p1 to
the stagnation point where the velocity
is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.
p1 u1 p2 u 2
z1 z2
g 2 g g 2 g
p1 u1 p2
g 2 g g
u12
p 2 p1
2
• This equation shows that at the
stagnation point pressure increases by
u12
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2
PITOT-TUBE
• In terms of velocity
u1 2g h2 h1
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PITOT-STATIC TUBE
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PITOT-STATIC TUBE
• When the two tubes are connected
to a differential pressure measuring
device, the resulting difference in
pressure, p2 – p1, is a direct
measure of the velocity u1:
2 p 2 p1
u1
2 gh m
or u1
• Where u1 = ideal or theoretical
velocity
u actual Cv u1
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DISADVANTAGES OF PITOT-STATIC TUBE
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Example
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VENTURI METER
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VENTURI METER
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VENTURI METER
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VENTURI METER
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VENTURI METER
• Discharge
Qideal u1 A1
Qactual Cd Qideal Cd u1 A1
p p2
2g 1
z1 z 2
Qactual Cd A1 A2 g
A12 A22
• In terms of manometer
p1 gz1 p2 man gh g z2 h
reading
p1 p2
z1 z 2 h man 1
g
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VENTURI METER
• Thus
2 gh man 1
Qactual Cd A1 A2
A12 A22
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Example
• Petrol of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a pipe inclined at
30o to the horizontal in an upward direction. A venturi-meter is
fitted in this 25 cm diameter pipe; the ratio of areas of main and
throat is 4 and throat is at a distance of 1.2 m from inlet along its
length. The U-tube differential manometer connected to the inlet
and throat section registers a steady reading of 5 cm of mercury;
the tubes above the mercury being full of petrol. Find the
discharge and pressure difference in kPa between the throat and
entrance section. The meter has a discharge coefficient of 0.95
and relative density of mercury is 13.6.
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FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE
• Consider flow from a tank through a hole in the side close to the
base
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FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE
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FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE
• Actual velocity
uactual Cvuideal
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FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE
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TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK
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TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK
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TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK
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TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK
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TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK
• Integrating
0
t
dt
H1
H2 Adh
C d a 2 gh
t
2A
Cd a 2g
H1 H 2
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Example
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