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Principles of Fluid Flow

1) The document discusses principles of fluid flow, classifying flows as steady or unsteady, uniform or non-uniform, laminar or turbulent, rotational or irrotational, and compressible or incompressible. 2) It also discusses visualizing flow using pathlines, streaklines, streamlines, and streamtubes. 3) Fundamental equations of fluid dynamics are presented, including the continuity equation, Bernoulli's equation, and momentum equation, which can be used to address most hydraulic problems.

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
553 views

Principles of Fluid Flow

1) The document discusses principles of fluid flow, classifying flows as steady or unsteady, uniform or non-uniform, laminar or turbulent, rotational or irrotational, and compressible or incompressible. 2) It also discusses visualizing flow using pathlines, streaklines, streamlines, and streamtubes. 3) Fundamental equations of fluid dynamics are presented, including the continuity equation, Bernoulli's equation, and momentum equation, which can be used to address most hydraulic problems.

Uploaded by

chile
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 73

PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW

1
Classification of flows

Fluids may be classified as follows:


i. Steady or unsteady flow
ii. Uniform or non-uniform flow
iii.Laminar or turbulent flow
iv.Rotational or irrotational flow
v. Compressible or incompressible flow
vi.Ideal or real flow

2
Classification of flows

 Steady flow
– This is the type of flow in which the various parameters of flow at any
point do not change with time
– Thus
;
 Unsteady flow
– This is that type of flow in which the velocity, pressure, density or
cross-section at a point change with respect to time. Thus
;

3
Classification of flows
 Uniform flow
– This is the type of flow in which the velocity and other flow
parameters at any given time does not change with respect to space.
– Thus
;
 Non-uniform flow
– This is that type of flow in which the velocity and other flow
parameters at any given time changes with respect to space. Thus
;

4
Classification of flows
• Combining the above, one can classify any flow into one of four types:
i. Steady uniform flow: conditions do not change with position in the stream or
with time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at
constant velocity.
ii. Steady non-uniform flow: conditions change from point to point in the stream
but do not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with
constant velocity at the inlet – velocity will change as flow moves along the
length of the pipe toward the exit.
iii. Unsteady uniform flow: at a given instant in time the conditions at every point
are the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant
diameter connected to a pump, pumping at a constant rate which is then
switched off.
iv. Unsteady non-uniform flow: every condition of the flow may change from
point to point and with time at every point. An example is surface waves in an
open channel. 5
Classification of flows
 Rotational flow
– A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles while
moving in the direction of flow rotate about their mass
centres.
– Flow near a solid boundary is rotational.

 Irrotational flow
– A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particles while
moving in the direction of flow do not rotate about their
mass centres.
– Flow outside the boundary layer is generally considered
irrotational.
6
Classification of flows

 Laminar flow
‒ A laminar flow is one in which paths taken by the
individual particles do not cross one another and
moves along well defined paths.
‒ This type of flow is also called streamline flow or
viscous flow.

7
Classification of flows

Turbulent flow
‒ A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles
move in a zigzag way.
‒ The motion is not orderly.

8
Classification of flows

• Characterisation of Laminar and Turbulent flow


‒ Laminar and turbulent flows are characterised on the basis
of Reynolds number (Re)
i. For Reynolds number (Re) < 2000 -----------------flow in pipes
is laminar
ii. For Reynolds number (Re) > 4000 ------------------flow in pipes
is turbulent
iii. For Reynolds number (Re) between 2000 and 4000 ---------
flow is transitional

9
Classification of flows

• Compressible flow
‒ It is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid
changes from point to point.
‒ Flow of gases through orifices, nozzles, gas turbines, is
an example.
• Incompressible flow
– It is that type of flow in which density is constant for the
fluid.
– Liquids are generally considered flowing
incompressibly.
10
Classification of flows

• Ideal flow
‒ Ideal fluid is non-viscous and incompressible.
‒ Shear force between the boundary surface and fluid or
between the fluid layers is absent and only pressure forces
and boundary forces are controlling.
• Real flow
‒ Real fluids have viscosity and surface shear forces are
involved during flow.

11
FLOW VISUALISATION
• Flow can be visualised in one of the following forms:
a) Pathline or particle path
b) Streakline or dyeline
c) Streamlines
d) Streamtube

12
FLOW VISUALISATION
• Pathline or particle path
‒ the line followed by a particle in the fluid released at some point in the
flow.
‒ A pathline represents an integrated history of where a fluid particle has
been.

13
FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streakline or dyeline
‒ is an instantaneous line whose points are occupied by particles which
have earlier passed through a prescribed point in space
‒ can be formed by injecting dye continuously into the fluid at a fixed point
in space

14
FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streamlines:
‒ These are imaginary lines joining points of equal velocity –
velocity contours.
‒ At all points the direction of the streamline is the direction of the
fluid velocity.
‒ Close to the wall the velocity is parallel to the wall so the
streamline is also parallel to the wall.

15
FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streamline properties
a) Since fluid moves in the same direction as streamline, fluid
cannot cross a streamline
b) Streamlines cannot cross each other, meaning that any particle
of fluid starting on one streamline will stay on that same
streamline throughout the fluid.

16
FLOW VISUALISATION
• Streamtube
‒ a useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only a part
of the total fluid in isolation from the rest.
‒ This is done by imagining a tubular surface formed by streamlines
along which the fluid flows.

17
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

• Almost all hydraulic problems can be addressed by the


application of one or more of three equations/physical
properties:
i. Conservation of mass (continuity equation)
ii. Conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation)
iii. Conservation of momentum (momentum equation)

18
FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

• The quantity of fluid flowing in a system per unit time can


be expressed by the following three different terms:
i. Volume flow rate, Q: the volume of fluid flowing past
a section per unit time
ii. Weight flow rate, W: the weight of fluid flowing past a
section per unit time
iii. Mass flow rate, m : the mass of fluid flowing past a
section per unit time

19
FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

• Volume flow rate


‒ This is the most fundamental of the three terms and is calculated from
Q  Au

‒ Where A is the area of the cross-section and u is the average velocity of flow.
‒ Its units are m3/s.
• Weight flow rate
‒ The weight flow rate W is related to Q by
W  Q
‒ Where γ is the specific weight of the fluid.
‒ The units of W are N/s.
20
FLUID FLOW RATE AND THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

• Mass flow rate


‒ The mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ is related to Q by
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑄
‒ Where ρ is the density of the fluid.
‒ The units of 𝑚ሶ are kg/s.

21
CONTINUITY OF FLOW

• LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS


‒ States that matter cannot be created or destroyed - it is simply changed into
a different form of matter
‒ This principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as control volumes (or
surfaces)

22
CONTINUITY OF FLOW

• For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says:


 Mass entering per unit time = mass leaving per unit time + increase of
mass in the control volume per unit time
• For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control volume, so
 Mass entering per unit time = mass leaving per unit time
• This principle can be applied to steady flow in a streamtube, having a cross-
sectional area small enough for the velocity to be considered as constant
over a given cross-section.

23
CONTINUITY OF FLOW

• Between sections 1 and 2, the


following can be stated:
 Mass entering per unit time at end 1
= mass leaving per unit time at end 2

1A1u1   2A2u2

 This is the equation of continuity for


steady flow.
 For incompressible flow in real pipes
the continuity equation takes the
following form:
A1u1  A2u2  Q
24
APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

1. Applied to pipes with changing cross-sections along their length

• By the continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the same at each
section – the mass going into the pipe is equal to the mass going out of the
pipe.
 1 A1u1  2 A2u2

25
APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

• For incompressible flow,  1   2  


 A1u1  A2u2

• Implying, Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at section 2


• i.e. Q1  Q2

26
APPLICATION OF THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

2. Applied to pipes coming from a junction

 Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the junction
1Q1   2 Q2   3Q3
 When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water)
Q1  Q2  Q3

27
Example

• Water flows through a pipe AB of diameter d1 = 50 mm, which is in


series with a pipe BC of diameter d2 = 75 mm in which the mean
velocity u2 = 2 m/s.
• At C the pipe forks and one branch CD is of diameter d3 such that
the mean velocity u3 = 1.5 m/s. The other branch CE is of
diameter d4 = 30 mm and conditions are such that the discharge
Q2 from BC divides so that Q4 = 0.5Q3. Calculate the values of Q1,
u1, Q2, Q3, d3, Q4 and u4.

28
29
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

• Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of the principle of conservation


of energy along a streamline.
• Consider

30
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 Energy of a liquid in motion


 The fluid possesses the following type of energy:
i. Potential energy
ii. Kinetic energy
iii. Pressure energy

31
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 Potential energy
 It is energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its position.
 Potential energy = mgz
 Potential energy per unit weight = z
 Kinetic energy
 It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its
motion or velocity.
1
Kinetic energy  mu 2
2
u2
Kinetic energy per unit weight 
2g 32
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 Pressure energy
 It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its
existing pressure.
 At any given cross-section, the pressure generates a force and,
as the fluid flows, this cross-section will move forward and so
work will be done.
 If the pressure at section AB is p and the area of the cross-section
is A,
Force exerted on AB = pA

33
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 Pressure energy
 After a weight mg of fluid has flowed along the stream tube,
section AB will have moved to A’B’:
mg m
Volume passing AB  
g 
 Therefore,
m
Distance AA' 
A
m pm
Work done  Force Distance AA'  pA 
A 
p
Work done per unit weigh t 
g
34
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 Total energy
 Total energy of a liquid, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy,
kinetic energy and pressure energy.i.e.
2
P u
H  z
g 2 g
 All the terms in the energy equation have units of length i.e. metres,
 H  total head
p
g  pressure head
2
 u  kinetic / velocity head
2g
 z  potential / elevation head
35
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 RESTRICTION OF BERNOULLI EQUATION


 Bernoulli’s equation has some restrictions in its application. These are:
i. Flow is steady
ii. Density is constant
iii. Friction losses are negligible
iv. The equation relates the states at two points along a single
streamline (not conditions on two different streamlines).

36
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

 BERNOULLI EQUATION
 Bernoulli's equation can be applied
between two points, 1 and 2, on the
streamline.
 By the principle of conservation of
energy the total energy in the
system does not change, thus the
total head does not change. So

p1 u12 p2 u22
Total head at 1 = total head at 2   z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g

37
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION

• Consider a reservoir feeding a pipe which rises before falling to its


final level

38
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION

• Applying the Bernoulli equation


 at 1 the reservoir water surface
P1 u12
H   z1
g 2 g
 However, P1 = Patm = 0 and u1 ≈ 0 (u1 is negligible in the reservoir)
 Thus,
H  z1
 When the pipe nozzle is closed, there will be zero velocity and all the
levels in the piezometers would be equal and the same as the total
head line.
39
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION

• At each point on the line, when u = 0, then


P
H  z  ( Piezometric head )
g

• If, on the other hand, the water was flowing with velocity u,2 the
levels in the piezometers would fall by an amount equal u 2 g

40
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION

41
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION

• Thus, piezometer levels when fluid is flowing would be:


P u2
H  z
g 2 g
• The Bernoulli equation along the streamline from point 1 on the
surface of the reservoir to point 2 at the outlet nozzle of the pipe,
will be written as follows:
P1 u12 P2 u 22
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g

42
LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION

• In a real pipeline there are energy losses due to friction


• Energy loss can be represented graphically by a continuously
dropping energy line.
• The Bernoulli equation with a consideration of energy loss
between two points is written as follows:
P1 u12 P2 u 22
  z1    z2  h f
g 2 g g 2 g
 Where hf = energy loss due to friction

43
44
Example

• A pipe AB carries water and tapers uniformly from a diameter of


0.1 m at A to 0.2 m at B over a length a 2 m. Pressure gauges are
installed at A, B and also at C, the midpoint of AB. If the pipe
centreline slopes upwards from A to B at an angle of 30o and the
pressures recorded at A and B are 2.0 and 2.3 bar, respectively,
determine the flow through the pipe and pressure recorded a C
neglecting all losses.

45
EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

• Bernoulli's principle application is in flow measuring devices such


as:
i. Pitot-tube/pitot-static tube
ii. Venturi meter
iii. Orificemeter
iv. Nozzlemeter

46
PITOT-TUBE

• A pitot-tube is a small open tube bent at right angle and is placed


in flow such that one leg is vertical and the other horizontal.
• It is used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or
channel.
• It works on the principle that if the velocity of flow at any point
becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to the
conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy.

47
PITOT-TUBE

48
PITOT-TUBE

• Consider a pattern of streamlines


• The central streamline will be
stopped at 2 u2 = 0
• Point 2 is known as the stagnation
point and the corresponding
pressure the stagnation pressure.
• From the Bernoulli equation the
stagnation pressure can be
calculated.

49
PITOT-TUBE
• Apply Bernoulli along the central
streamline from a point upstream where
the velocity is u1 and the pressure p1 to
the stagnation point where the velocity
is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.
p1 u1 p2 u 2
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
p1 u1 p2
  
g 2 g g
u12
 p 2  p1 
2
• This equation shows that at the
stagnation point pressure increases by
u12
50
2
PITOT-TUBE

• In terms of velocity

u1  2g h2  h1 

51
PITOT-STATIC TUBE

• The pitot-static tube combines


the piezometer and the pitot-
tube and the arrangement can
be easily connected to a
manometer.
• This has the advantage of
taking only one reading as
opposed to the pitot-tube
where two readings are taken.

52
PITOT-STATIC TUBE
• When the two tubes are connected
to a differential pressure measuring
device, the resulting difference in
pressure, p2 – p1, is a direct
measure of the velocity u1:
2 p 2  p1 
u1 

2 gh m   
or u1 

• Where u1 = ideal or theoretical
velocity
u actual  Cv u1

53
DISADVANTAGES OF PITOT-STATIC TUBE

• Pitot-static tube measures velocities at points in the flow and not


average velocity - thus cannot be used to measure discharge
• It is liable to block easily

54
Example

• A submarine fitted with a pitot tube moves horizontally in the sea.


Its axis is 12 m below the surface of water. The pitot tube fixed in
front of the submarine and along its axis is connected to the two
limbs of a U-tube containing mercury, the reading of which is
found to be 200mm. Find the speed of the submarine. Take the
specific gravity of sea water = 1.025 times fresh water.

55
VENTURI METER

• A venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe.


• It consists of
 a rapidly converging section
 a gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section
 a throat

56
VENTURI METER

57
VENTURI METER

• Applying Bernoulli along the


streamline from point 1 to
point 2

• By using the continuity


equation we can eliminate the
velocity u2

58
VENTURI METER

• Substituting this into and


rearranging the Bernoulli
equation we get

59
VENTURI METER

• Discharge
Qideal  u1 A1
Qactual  Cd Qideal  Cd u1 A1
 p  p2 
2g  1
   z1  z 2
Qactual  Cd A1 A2  g 
A12  A22

• In terms of manometer
p1  gz1  p2   man gh  g z2  h 
reading
p1  p2  
 z1  z 2  h man  1
g   

60
VENTURI METER

• Thus
 
2 gh man  1
Qactual  Cd A1 A2   
A12  A22

61
Example
• Petrol of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a pipe inclined at
30o to the horizontal in an upward direction. A venturi-meter is
fitted in this 25 cm diameter pipe; the ratio of areas of main and
throat is 4 and throat is at a distance of 1.2 m from inlet along its
length. The U-tube differential manometer connected to the inlet
and throat section registers a steady reading of 5 cm of mercury;
the tubes above the mercury being full of petrol. Find the
discharge and pressure difference in kPa between the throat and
entrance section. The meter has a discharge coefficient of 0.95
and relative density of mercury is 13.6.

62
FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

• Consider flow from a tank through a hole in the side close to the
base

63
FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

• The streamlines converges towards the orifice and would continue


to converge beyond the orifice to a minimum value when they all
become parallel.
• At this point, the velocity and pressure are uniform across the jet.
• This minimum convergence is called the vena contracta.
• It is necessary to know the amount of contraction to be able to
calculate the flow.

64
FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

• Applying the Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 on the


surface to point 2 at the centre of the orifice
P1 u12 P2 u22
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
• but u1 = 0, p1 = p2 = patm = 0. If datum is through z2, then z2 = 0
• Thus
u2  2 gh  ideal velocity

• Actual velocity
uactual  Cvuideal

65
FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

• To calculate the discharge through the orifice, the velocity is


multiplied with the area of the jet.
• The actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the
area of the orifice.
• This area is obtained by using a coefficient of contraction Cc, for
the orifice.
Aactual  Cc Aorifice
Aactual
 Cc 
Aorifice
• Discharge
Qactual  Aactualu actual  Cc Cv Aorificeuideal  Cd Aorificeuideal  Cd Ao 2 gh
66
Example
• Oil of relative density 0.85 issues from a 50 mm diameter orifice
under a pressure of 100 kPa (gauge). The diameter of the vena
contracta is 39.5 mm and the discharge is 18 litres/s. What is the
coefficient of velocity?

67
TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK

• Consider a tank of uniform cross-sectional area containing some


liquid and having an orifice at its bottom or sides.

68
TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK

 A =area of the tank


 a = area of the orifice
 H1 = initial height of the liquid
 H2 = final height of the liquid
 t = time in seconds for the
liquid to fall from height H1 to
H2

69
TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK

• Let h be the height of liquid above


the orifice and let it decrease by
dh in a small interval of time dt.
 Volume of liquid leaving the tank
in time,dt,  Adh
 Theoretical velocity through the
orifice u  2 gh
 Volume of liquid flowing through
the orifice = Cd a 2 gh  dt

70
TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK

• Let h be the height of liquid above


the orifice and let it decrease by
dh in a small interval of time dt.
 Volume of liquid leaving the tank
in time,dt,  Adh
 Theoretical velocity through the
orifice u  2 gh
 Volume of liquid flowing through
the orifice = Cd a 2 gh  dt

71
TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK

• Volume of liquid leaving the tank


equals volume of liquid flowing
through the orifice
  Adh  Cd a 2 gh  dt
 Adh
 dt 
Cd a 2 gh

• Integrating


0
t
dt  
H1
H2  Adh
C d a 2 gh
t 
2A
Cd a 2g
 H1  H 2 

72
Example

• A swimming pool, 10 m long x 6 m wide, contains water to a depth


of 1.25 m. If the water is discharged through a 0.23 m2 opening at
the bottom of the pool, find the time taken to empty it. A discharge
coefficient of 0.62 may be assumed for the opening.

73

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