6.

One-Dimensional Continuous Groups

6.1 The Rotation Group SO(2)

6.2 The Generator of SO(2)
6.3 Irreducible Representations of SO(2)
6.4 Invariant Integration Measure, Orthonormality and
Completeness Relations
6.5 Multi-Valued Representations
6.6 Continuous Translational Group in One Dimension
6.7 Conjugate Basis Vectors
 Introduction
• Lie Group, rough definition:
Infinite group that can be parametrized smoothly &
analytically.
• Exact definition:
A differentiable manifold that is also a group.
• Linear Lie groups = Classical Lie groups
= Matrix groups
E.g. O(n), SO(n), U(n), SU(n), E(n), SL(n), L, P, …
• Generators, Lie algebra
• Invariant measure
• Global structure / Topology
 6.1. The Rotation Group SO(2)

2-D Euclidean space E2  span  e1 , e2 

Rotations about origin O by angle  :
R   e1  e1 cos  e2 sin 
R   e2  e1 sin   e2 cos

 cos   sin  
R   ei  e j R   R    
j
i
 sin  cos  

 cos   sin  
 R   e R   e2    e1 e2  
cos  
 sin 
1
x  ei x i  x  E2

R   : E2  E2
x  R   x  R   ei x i  e j R   i x i  e j x j
j
by x

x  j  R  
j
 i
xi
Rotation is length preserving:
x  x j xj  R   x i R   j xk  x  x i xi
2 j k 2
i

R   i R   j   i k R   RT    E 
j k


det R     1 i.e., R() is special orthogonal. SO  2    R   

If O is orthogonal, O OT  E  OT O

det O det OT  det O   1

2
 det O   1
O  n    All n  n orthogonal matrices 
Theorem 6.1:
There is a 1–1 correspondence between rotations in En & SO(n) matrices.

Proof: see Problem 6.1

Geometrically: R 2  R 1   R 1  2   R 1  R 2 

and R  2 n     R    nZ

Theorem 6.2: 2-D Rotational Group R2 = SO(2)

R2  SO  2 is an Abelian group under matrix multiplication with

identity element E  R   0

and inverse R1    R     R  2   

Proof: Straightforward.

SO(2) is a Lie group of 1 (continuous) parameter 

SO(2) group manifold
 6.2. The Generator of SO(2)
Lie group: elements connected to E can be acquired by a few generators.

For SO(2), there is only 1 generator J defined by

R  d  0   E  i d J J is a 22 matrix

R() is continuous function of  

d R  
R   d  R    d
d
 R   R  d   R    i d R   J

d R  
  i R   J with R  0  E
d
Theorem 6.3: Generator J of SO(2)

R    ei  J
Comment:
• Structure of a Lie group ( the part that's connected to E ) is
determined by a set of generators.
• These generators are determined by the local structure near E.
• Properties of the portions of the group not connected to E are
determined by global topological properties.

 cos d  sin d   1 d 

R  d     E  i d J
 sin d cos d   d
 1 

  0 i 
J   y Pauli matrix
 i 0 
J is traceless, Hermitian, & idempotent ( J2 = E )
   2 j     2 j 1
 j  j 1

R    ei  J  E i  J
j  0  2 j ! j  1  2 j  1 !

 cos   sin  
 E cos   i J sin  
 sin  cos  
 6.3. IRs of SO(2)
Let U() be the realization of R() on V.
 U 2 U 1   U 1  2   U 1  U 2  U  2 n     U  

U  d   E  i d  J U    e i  J

U() unitary  J Hermitian

SO(2) Abelian  All of its IRs are 1-D

The basis |   of a minimal invariant subspace under SO(2) can

be chosen as
J     so that U      e i  

U  2 n     U    e i  2 n     e i      m Z
IR Um : J m  m m U m   m  m e i  m

m = 0: U 0    1  Identity representation
m = 1: U 1    ei  SO(2) mapped clockwise onto unit circle in C plane
m = 1: U 1    e i  … counterclockwise …

m = n: U  n    e i n
SO(2) mapped n times around unit circle in C plane

Theorem 6.4: IRs of SO(2)

Single-valued IRs of SO(2) are given by U m    e i m  m Z

Only m = 1 are faithful

 cos   sin  
Representation R      is reducible
 sin  cos  
 0 i  1
J   has eigenvalues 1 with eigenvectors e   e1  i e2 
 i 0  2

 J e   e R   e   e e i
R  U 1  U 1
Problem 6.2
 6.4. Invariant Integration Measure,
Orthonormality & Completeness Relations
Finite group g  Continuous group  dg
Issue 1: Different parametrizations
f  g    dφ f  g  φ  dφ  d1 d n
Let G = { g() } & define  d g

where  = ( 1, …n ) & f is any complex-valued function of g.

Changing parametrization to  = (), we have,

ξ
 d ξ f  g  ξ    dφ  φ f  g  φ  ξ  1 , , n 

 φ  1 , , n 
  dφ f  g  φ 

Remedy: Introduce weight : d g    φ dφ

so that  d ξ   ξ  f  g  ξ    dφ  φ f  g φ  analytic ξ  φ & f

ξ
   φ   ξ  φ  
φ
 ( Notation changed ! )
Issue 2: Rearrangement Theorem

d g f  g    d g f  g g   g   g  ξ g   G

G G

Since  d g f  g    1
d g f  g g    d gg f  g g  M G
M g M M

R.T. is satisfied by setting M = G if dg is (left) invariant, i.e.,

d g  d g  g  g  G

Let d g    ξ g  d ξ g

 d g g    ξ g g  d ξ g g g  ξ g g   g  ξ g   g  ξ g 

d g  d g g    ξ g  d ξ g    ξ g g  d ξ g g
  0  d ξ e    ξ g  d ξ g  g  e, ξe  0 
From g  ξ g g   g  ξ g   g  ξ g  one can determine the (vector) function  :

ξ g g  χ  ξ g  ; ξ g  ξ g  χ 0 ; ξ g   g  e

 d ξ g  J ξ g  d ξe where J  ξ g   det J  ξ g 
i

  i  ξ g ; ξ g 
J ξ g 
i

j   gj
ξg  0

d ξe  0
 g  ξ g   e  0  e
d ξg J ξ g  e(0) is arbitrary

Theorem 6.5: SO(2) d g  d 

Proof: R   R   R       ;     

    ;  
J    1 Setting e(0) = 1 completes proof.
   0
Theorem 6.6: Orthonormality & Completeness Relations for SO(2)
2
d †
 U n   U m     nm Orthonormality
0
2



n  
U n
  U n        
†
  Completeness

Proof: These are just the Fourier theorem since U n    ei n 

Comments:
• These relations are generalizations of the finite group results with
g   dg
• Cf. results for Td ( roles of continuous & discrete labels reversed )
 6.5. Multi-Valued Representations

Consider representation R   U1/ 2    ei  / 2

U1/ 2  2     ei  / 2  U1/ 2  

U1/ 2  4     e  U1/ 2  
i  / 2 2-valued representation

m-valued representations :

R   Un / m    ei n / m ( if n,m has no common factor )

Comments:
• Multi-connected manifold  multi-valued IRs:
• For SO(2): group manifold = circle  Multi-connected because
paths of different winding numbers cannot be continuously deformed
into each other.
• Only single & double valued reps have physical correspondence in
3-D systems ( anyons can exist in 2-D systems ).
 6.6. Continuous Translational Group in 1-D
R() ~ translation on unit circle by arc length 
 Similarity between reps of R(2) & Td

Let the translation by distance x be denoted by T(x)

Given a state | x0  localized at T  x  x0  x0  x is localized at x0+x

x0,
T  x T  x  x0  T  x x0  x  x0  x  x  T  x  x x0  x0

 T  x T  x   T  x  x 
T  0 x0  x0  0  x0  E x0  x0  T  0  E

T xT  x  T x  x  T  0  E  T  x  T x

1

 
T1  T  x  x  R  is a 1-parameter Abelian Lie group

= Continuous Translational Group in 1-D

 Generator P: T  dx   E  i dx P
dT
T  x  dx   T  x   dx dT  x 
dx   i P T  x 
 T  x  T  dx   T  x   i dx P dx

 T  x   ei P x

For a unitary representation T(x)  Up(x), P is Hermitian with real

eigenvalue p. Basis of Up(x) is the eigenvector | p  of P:

P p  p p U p  x  p  p ei p x pR

Comments:
1. IRs of SO(2), Td & T1 are all exponentials: e–i m , e–i knb & e–i p x, resp.
Cause: same group multiplication rules.
2. Group parameters are
continuous & bounded for SO(2) = { R() }
discrete & unbounded for Td = { T(n) }
continuous & unbounded for T1 = { T(x) }
Invariant measure for T1: d g  C dx

dx †

 2 p
U  x  U p
 x     p  p  Orthonormality


dp p
 2 U  x  U p x    x  x 
†
  Completeness

C = (2)–1 is determined by comparison with the Fourier theorem.

SO(2) Td T1
Orthonormality mn (k–k) (p–p)
Completeness (–) nn (x–x)
 6.7. Conjugate Basis Vectors
Reminder: 2 kind of basis vectors for Td.
• |x localized state T  n  x  x  nb
• |Ek extended normal mode T  n  E k  E k ei k n b

uE , k  x   x Ek H Ek E Ek

For SO(2):
• |   = localized state at ( r=const,  ) U   0    0
• | m  = eigenstate of J & R() U   m  m ei m 

  U   0    m m 
m  

 U   m 

m   m U   0 †
0  m 0 ei m 
Setting m 0 1 gives m   ei m  m
 transfer matrix elements  m |   = representation function e–i m 
 
  
m  
m ei m  m   ei m 

2 2 
d i m  
d i  mm   
 2
e    m  2
e 
m  
m  m m  m
0 m   0

2 ways to expand an arbitrary state |   :

 2
d
  
m  
m m 
 2
   
0

        m m    ei m m
m m

2 2
d d  i m 
m  m    m      e   
0
2 0
2
  
J    J m ei m    m m ei m   i    
m   m   
1  1 
J is Hermitian:  J   J        
i  i 
1 
 J in the x-representation
i 

 J = angular momentum component  plane of rotation

 For T1:
• | x  = localized state at x T  x  x0  x  x0
• | p  = eigenstate of P & T(x) T  x  p  p ei p x

x  p T  x 0
T is unitary
p  ei p x p 0  ei p x
 
 p | 0  set to 1
dp dp
x  

2
p p x  

2
p ei p x

   
d p
p   p  p  p
i  p  p  x


d x ei p x x  

2
p 

dx e  

d p

 
dp d p i p  x  x 
x x   x p e  i p x   e    x  x 

2 
2
 

  d x ei  p p  x  2   p  p 

p p  dx e i px
p x 
 
2 ways to expand an arbitrary state |   :
 
   dx x x    dx x   x
 
 
dp
 

2
p p   
dp
2
p   p

 
dp
  x  x    p  d p i px
e   p

2
x p  

2
 
  p  p    x  d x e i p x   x 

dx p x  


dp 

i p x
P x  P p e  i x

2 x
1  1 
P+ =P: x P   Px   x     x
i x i x
1 
P on V = span{ | x  }  P = linear momentum
i x