CHAPTER 3

METHOD OF CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

& CIRCUIT THEOREMS

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 Introduction
 Methods of analysis have been developed
that allow us to approach in a systematic
manner a network with any number of
sources in any arrangement.

 The methods covered include branch-

current analysis, mesh analysis and
nodal analysis.

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 Source Conversions
 An ideal source cannot be converted from
one type to the other.
 All sources – whether they are voltage or
current – have some internal resistance.
 The equivalence between a current source
and a voltage source exists only at their
external terminals.
 A source and its equivalent will establish
current in the same direction though the
applied load.
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 Source Conversions

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 Example
Convert the voltage source of figure
below to a current source, and calculate
the current through the 4Ω load for each
source.

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 Solution

(a) (b)
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 Source Conversions

Figure (a)

Figure (b)

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 Source Conversions
 If two or more sources are in parallel,
they may be replaced by one current
source having the magnitude and
direction of the resultant, which can
be found by summing the currents in
one direction and subtracting sum of
currents in the opposite direction.
The new parallel internal resistance
is the total resistance of the resulting
parallel resistive elements.
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 Example
Reduce the parallel current sources of
figure below to a single current source.

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 Solution

36
I= 10 – 6 = 4A Rp   2
3 6
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 Example
Reduce the network of figure below to a
single current source, and calculate the
current through RL.

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 Solution

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 Solution

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 Solution

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 Basics Concepts
• All the points in a circuit joined together
with zero resistance wires make up a
single note. The voltage is the same
at any point in a node.

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 Basics Concepts
• Choose one node in a circuit to be
reference node. Measure all node
voltages relative to this one.

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 Basics Concepts
• Voltage across a component is the
difference between the voltages at the
two ends. (e.g V21 = V2 – V1)

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 Basics Concepts
• Passive sign convention: Current and
voltage arrows for a 2 terminal
component are in opposite directions.

- V12 +

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 Basics Concepts
• Components are in parallel if the are
joined together at both ends.
Components in parallel have the same
voltage across them.

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 Basics Concepts
• Components are in series if the same
current is forced to flow through each
one.

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 Basics Concepts
• KCL (Kirchoff’s Current Law): The sum
of currents entering a node is equal
to the sum of the currents leaving a
node.

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 Nodal Analysis
1. Arbitrarily assign a reference node within
the circuit and indicate this node as
ground. The reference node is usually
located at the bottom of the circuit,
although it may be located anywhere.
2. Convert each voltage source in the
network to its equivalent current source.
This step, although not absolutely
necessary, makes further calculations
easier to understand.
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 Nodal Analysis
3.Arbitrarily assign voltages (V1, V2, . . . , Vn)
to the remaining nodes in the circuit.
(Remember that you have already assigned
a reference node, so these voltages will all
be with respect to the chosen reference.)
4.Arbitrarily assign a current direction to each
branch in which there is no current source.
Using the assigned current directions,
indicate the corresponding polarities of the
voltage drops on all resistors
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 Nodal Analysis
5. With the exception of the reference node
(ground), apply Kirchhoff’s current law at
each of the nodes. If a circuit has a total
of n + 1 nodes (including the reference
node), there will be n simultaneous linear
equations.
6. Rewrite each of the arbitrarily assigned
currents in terms of the potential
difference across a known resistance.
7. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear
equations for the voltages (V1, V2, . . . ,
PPKSE Vn).
 Nodal Analysis Example
Given the circuit of figure below, use
nodal analysis to solve for the voltage
Vab.

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 Nodal Analysis…Step 1&2
Step 1: Select a convenient reference node.
Step 2: Convert the voltage sources into equivalent
current sources. The equivalent circuit is shown in
figure below.

Step 2

Step 1
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 Nodal Analysis…Step 2

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 Nodal Analysis…Step 3&4
Steps 3 and 4: Arbitrarily assign node voltages and
branch currents. Indicate the voltage polarities
across all resistors according to the assumed
current directions.
Step 4
Step 3

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 Nodal Analysis…Step 5

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 Nodal Analysis…Step 6

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 Nodal Analysis…Step 7
Solve simultaneous linear equations

ANS: -1.33 V

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 Example
Determine the nodal voltages for the
network of figure below.

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 Solution

I2

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 Solution

I2  Iin   Iout

At Node V1; 4  I1  I3

V1  0 V1  V2
4 
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R1 R3
 Solution
At Node V1;

I3  I2  2
V1  V2 V2
 2
R3 R2
V1  V2 V2
 2 (1)
12 6

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 Solution
At Node V2;

4  I1  I3
V1  0 V1  V2
4 
R1 R3
V1 V1  V2
4  (2)
2 12

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 Solution
• Solve the set of simultaneous equations
that you have written down.

CRAMER’S RULE

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 Example
Using nodal analysis, determine the potential
across the 4Ω resistor in figure below.

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 Solution

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 Exercise
Find the voltage across the 3Ω resistor
of figure below by nodal analysis.

V3Ω = 1.101V
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 Exercise
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit
shown in figure below.

ANS:
V1 = 13.33V
V2 = 20V

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 Exercise
Determine the voltages at the nodes in
figure below.

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 Solution
Determine the voltages at the nodes in
figure below.
ANS:
V1 = 4.8V
V2 = 2.4V
V3 = -2.4V

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 Solution
Determine the find the current I0.

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 Exercise
Determine the voltages at the nodes in
figure below.
ANS:
V1 = -14.86V
V2 =-12.57V

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 Nodal Analysis With
Voltage Sources

Case 2

Case 1

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 Case 1
If a voltage source is connected
between the reference node and a
nonreference node, we simply set the
voltage at the nonreference node equal
to the voltage of the voltage source.

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 Exercise
Determine all node voltages and
branch currents.

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 Case 2
If the voltage source (dependent or
independent) is connected between
two nonreference nodes, the two
nonreference nodes form a
generalized node or supernode; we
apply both KCL and KVL to determine
the node voltages.

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 Supernote
A supernote is formed by enclosing a
(dependent or independent) voltage
source connected between two
nonreference nodes and any elements
connected in parallel with it

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 Example
Determine the nodal voltages V1 and V2
of figure below using the concept of a
supernode.

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 Solution
Replacing the independent voltage
source of 12 V with a short-circuit
equivalent.

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 Solution

ANS:
V1 = 10.667V
V2 = -1.333V

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 Example
For the circuit shown in figure below,
find the node voltages.

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 Solution
At supernode:

(1)

Apply KVL
(2)

Solve the equations (1) and (2)

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 Exercise
Determine voltages v1 through v3 in the
circuit of figure below using nodal
analysis.

ANS: 18.86V, 6.286V, 13V

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 Exercise
Determine the node voltages in the
circuit in figure below using nodal
analysis.

PPKSE ANS: 10V, 20V, 20V

 Review of Steps
• Step 1: Identify essential nodes
• Step 2: Pick a reference
• Must be an essential node
• Always label with the ground symbol
• Best to pick essential node with most
branches
• Often at the bottom of the circuit
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 Review of Steps
• Step 3: Label other essential nodes
• Step 4: Label currents at a branches
• Step 4: Apply KCL to all labelled nodes
except reference node
• Step 5: Solve linear equations
• Generates voltage at each node
(relative to reference node)
• Step 6: Solve for variables of interest
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 Mesh Analysis
• Similar to nodal analysis.
• Developed based on the systematic
approach to KVL to find all circuit
variables without having to sacrifice
any of the elements.
• General procedure which is making
use of mesh current in circuit analysis
as key solutions.
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 Mesh Analysis - Terms
• A Mesh - a loop which does not
contain any other loops within it.
• Mesh current – Assigned unknown
current flows around the perimeter of
the particular mesh/loop.
• Element current – Actual current
through any element or branch in the
circuit.
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 Mesh Analysis - Procedures

• Label all independent meshes and

assign proper unknown mesh currents.
• Formulate KVL/Supermesh/ Constraint
equations.
• Solve the resulting simultaneous
equations to obtain the unknown
mesh current.

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 Example
Find the current through each branch of
the network of figure below.

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 Solution
Steps 1 and 2 are as indicated in the
circuit. Note that the polarities of the 6-
resistor are different for each loop
current.

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 Solution
Step 3: Kirchhoff’s voltage law is
applied around each closed loop in the
clockwise direction:

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 Solution

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 Solution
Step 4: Solve equations

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 Exercise
Find the branch currents of the
network of figure below.

ANS:
-2.182A,
-0.773A,
- 1.409A

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 Exercise
Write the mesh equations for the
network of figure below and, solve for
the loop currents in the network.

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 Exercise
Apply mesh analysis to find i in figure
below.

ANS:
1.188A

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 Exercise
Using mesh analysis, find io in the
circuit in figure below

ANS: -5A
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 Mesh Analysis With Current
Sources
CASE 1: When a current source exists
only in one mesh.

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 Mesh Analysis With Current
Sources
CASE 2: When a current source exists
between two meshes: Consider the circuit in
figure below, for example. We create a
supermesh by excluding the current source
and any elements connected in series with it.

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 Mesh Analysis - Supermesh

A supermesh results when two meshes

have a (dependent or independent)
current source in common.

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 Mesh Analysis - Supermesh

20  6i1  10i 2 4i2  0 (1)

i2  i1  6 (2)
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 Solve equation (1) and (2), we get

i1 =-3.2A and i2 = 2.8A

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 Example
For the circuit in figure below, find i1 to i4
using mesh analysis.

ANS:
i1 = -7.5A
i2 = -2.5A
i3 = 3.93A
i4 = 2.143A

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 Exercise
Use mesh analysis to determine i1, i2,
and i3 in figure below.

ANS: i1 = 3.474A, i2 = 0.4737A, i3 = 1.1052A

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 Superposition Theorem
The superposition principle states that
the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.

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 Superposition Theorem
However, to apply the superposition principle,
we must keep two things in mind:
1.We consider one independent source at a
time while all other independent sources
are turned off. This implies that we replace
every voltage source by 0 V (or a short
circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or
an open circuit). This way we obtain a
simpler and more manageable circuit.
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 Superposition Theorem

Removing the effects of ideal sources

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 Superposition Theorem

Removing the effects of practical sources

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 Superposition Theorem
2.Dependent sources are left intact because
they are controlled by circuit variables.

(Step 1) (Step 2)

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 Steps to Apply
Superposition Principle:
1.Turn off all independent sources
except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active
source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2.Repeat step 1 for each of the other
independent sources.
3.Find the total contribution by adding
algebraically all the contributions due to
the independent sources.
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 EXAMPLE
Use the superposition theorem to find v in
the circuit in figure below.

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 Solution
Set the current source to zero.

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 Solution
Set the voltage source to zero.

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 Solution

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 EXAMPLE
Find io in the circuit in figure below
using superposition.

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 SOLUTION
Set the voltage source to zero.

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 SOLUTION
Set the current source to zero.

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 SOLUTION

i0 = i0’ + i0’’ =52/17 +(-60/17)

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 Exercise
Using the superposition theorem, find
vo in the circuit in figure below.

ANS: 12V
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 Exercise
Use superposition to find vx in the
circuit in figure below.

ANS: vx = 12.5V.
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 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that:
a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh in
series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is
the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are
turned off.
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 Thevenin’s Theorem

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 Procedures

Step 1: Disconnect the load, RL

Step 2: Find Thevenin’s Voltage, VTH
Step 3: Find Thevenin’s Resistance, RTH
Step 4: Determine the voltage across the
load or current through it.

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 Detail Procedures
1.Remove the load from the circuit.

2.Label the resulting two terminals. We will

label them as a and b, although any
notation may be used.

3.Set all sources in the circuit to zero. Voltage

sources are set to zero by replacing them
with short circuits (zero volts). Current
sources are set to zero by replacing them
with open circuits (zero amps).
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 Detail Procedures
4.Determine the Thévenin equivalent
resistance, RTH, by calculating the resistance
“seen” between terminals a and b. It may
be necessary to redraw the circuit to
simplify this step.

5.Replace the sources removed in Step 3, and

determine the open-circuit voltage between
the terminals. The resulting open-circuit
voltage will be the value of the Thévenin
voltage, VTH.
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 Detail Procedures
6.Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit using
the resistance determined in Step 4 and the
voltage calculated in Step 5. As part of the
resulting circuit, include that portion of the
network removed in Step 1.

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 Finding VTH

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 Finding RTH
Case 1: If the network has no dependent
sources, we turn off all independent
sources. RTh is the input resistance of the
network looking between terminals a and b.

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 Finding RTH
Case 2: If the network has dependent
sources, we turn off all independent
sources. As with superposition,dependent
sources are not to be turned off because
they are controlled by circuit variables.
We apply a voltage source vo at terminals
a and b and determine the resulting
current io. Then RTh = vo/io, as shown in
Fig 1.
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 Figure 1

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 Finding RTH
Or Alternatively, we may insert a current
source io at terminals a-b as shown in Fig
2 and find the terminal voltage vo. Again
RTh = vo/io. Either of the two approaches
will give the same result. In either
approach we may assume any value of vo
and io. For example, we may use vo = 1V
or io = 1A, or even use unspecified values
of vo or io.
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 Figure 2

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 Finding RTH
The Thevenin’s resistance can also be
determined by placing a short circuit
across the output terminals and finding
the current through the short circuit.

VOC VTH
RTH  
ISC ISC

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 Thevenin’s Theorem

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 EXAMPLE
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the
circuit shown in figure below, to the left
of the terminals a-b. Then find the
current through RL = 6, 16, and 36Ω .

RTH = 4Ω
VTH = 30V
IL = 3, 1.5,
0.75A.
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 EXAMPLE
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the
equivalent circuit to the left of the
terminals in the circuit in figure below.
Then find i.

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 EXAMPLE
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the
circuit in figure below.

RTH = 6Ω, VTH = 20V

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 SOLUTION
To find VTH:

VTH = VOC = 20V

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 SOLUTION
To find RTH:

RTH = 6Ω
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 NORTON’S THEOREM
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two
terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN, where IN is the short
circuit current through the terminals
and RN is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
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 NORTON’S THEOREM

Original
Circuit

Norton
Equivalent
Circuit

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 NORTON’S THEOREM

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 EXAMPLE
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for
the circuit in figure below.

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 EXAMPLE
Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of
the circuit in figure below at terminals a -b.

PPKSE RN = 1.67Ω, IN = 6A
 EXAMPLE
Find the Norton equivalent circuit of
the circuit in figure below.

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 MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
Maximum power is transferred to the
load when the load resistance equals
the Thevenin resistance as seen from
the load (RL = RTh).

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 Prove the maximum power
transfer theorem

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 Prove the maximum power
transfer theorem

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 Prove the maximum power
transfer theorem

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 EXAMPLE
Find the value of RL for maximum power
transfer in the circuit of figure below.
Find the maximum power.

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 EXAMPLE
Determine the value of RL that will draw
the maximum power from the rest of the
circuit in figure below. Calculate the
maximum power.

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