z-Transform

• The DTFT provides a frequency-domain

representation of discrete-time signals and
LTI discrete-time systems
• Because of the convergence condition, in
many cases, the DTFT of a sequence may
not exist
• As a result, it is not possible to make use of
such frequency-domain characterization in
these cases
 z-Transform
• A generalization of the DTFT defined by

j  j n
X (e )  x[n]e
n  
leads to the z-transform
• z-transform may exist for many sequences
for which the DTFT does not exist
• Moreover, use of z-transform techniques
permits simple algebraic manipulations
 z-Transform
• Consequently, z-transform has become an
important tool in the analysis and design of
digital filters
• For a given sequence g[n], its z-transform
G(z) is defined as

n
G( z )   g [ n ] z
n  
where z = Re(z) + jIm(z) is a complex
variable
 z-Transform
• If we let z  r e j , then the z-transform
reduces to

G(r e j )   g [ n ] r  n  j n
e
n  
• The above can be interpreted as the DTFT
n
of the modified sequence {g[n] r }
• For r = 1 (i.e., |z| = 1), z-transform reduces
to its DTFT, provided the latter exists
 z-Transform
• The contour |z| = 1 is a circle in the z-plane
of unity radius and is called the unit circle
• Like the DTFT, there are conditions on the
convergence of the infinite series

n
 g [n ] z
n  
• For a given sequence, the set R of values of
z for which its z-transform converges is
called the region of convergence (ROC)
 z-Transform
• Example - Determine the z-transform X(z)
of the causal sequence x[n]  a n [n] and its
ROC  
• Now X ( z )  a n [n] z n  a n z n
n   n 0

• The above power series converges to

1 1
X ( z)  , for a z  1
1  a z 1
• ROC is the annular region |z| > |a|
 z-Transform
• Example - The z-transform (z) of the unit
step sequence [n] can be obtained from
1 1
X ( z)  1
, for a z  1
1a z
by setting a = 1:
1 1
 ( z)  , for z  1
1  z 1
• ROC is the annular region 1  z  
 z-Transform

• Note: The unit step sequence [n] is not

absolutely summable, and hence its DTFT
does not converge uniformly

• Example - Consider the anti-causal

sequence
y[n]  a [n  1]
n
 z-Transform
• Its z-transform is given by
 1 
Y ( z)    a n
  n  1z n
   a n n
z    z
a m m

n   n   m 1

 1
1 m m a z
 a z a z  1
m 0 1a z
1 1
 1
, for a z  1
1a z
 z-Transform
• Note: The z-transforms of the two
sequences a [n] and  a [n  1] are
n n

identical even though the two parent

sequences are different
• Only way a unique sequence can be
associated with a z-transform is by
specifying its ROC
 Rational z-Transforms
• In the case of LTI discrete-time systems we
are concerned with in this course, all
pertinent z-transforms are rational functions
of z 1
• That is, they are ratios of two polynomials
in z 1:
P( z ) p0  p1z 1  ....  pM 1z ( M 1)  pM z  M
G( z )  
D( z ) d0  d1z 1  ....  d N 1z ( N 1)  d N z  N
 Rational z-Transforms
• The degree of the numerator polynomial
P(z) is M and the degree of the denominator
polynomial D(z) is N
 Rational z-Transforms
• A rational z-transform can be alternately
written in factored form as
1
p0  1(1    z )
M
G( z ) 
d0  1(1   z 1 )
N
 Rational z-Transforms
• At a root z   of the numerator polynomial
G( )  0 , and as a result, these values of z
are known as the zeros of G(z)
• At a root z   of the denominator
polynomial G( )   , and as a result,
these values of z are known as the poles of
G(z)
 Rational z-Transforms
• Example - The z-transform
1
 ( z)  1
, for z  1
1 z
has a zero at z = 0 and a pole at z = 1
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• ROC of a z-transform is an important
concept
• Without the knowledge of the ROC, there is
no unique relationship between a sequence
and its z-transform
• Hence, the z-transform must always be
specified with its ROC
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• Moreover, if the ROC of a z-transform
includes the unit circle, the DTFT of the
sequence is obtained by simply evaluating
the z-transform on the unit circle
• There is a relationship between the ROC of
the z-transform of the impulse response of a
causal LTI discrete-time system and its
BIBO stability
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• The ROC of a rational z-transform is
bounded by the locations of its poles
• To understand the relationship between the
poles and the ROC, it is instructive to
examine the pole-zero plot of a z-transform
• Consider again the pole-zero plot of the z-
transform (z)
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform

• In this plot, the ROC, shown as the shaded

area, is the region of the z-plane just outside
the circle centered at the origin and going
through the pole at z = 1
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• Example - The z-transform H(z) of the
sequence h[n]  (0.6)n [n] is given by
1
H ( z)  ,
1  0.6 z 1
z  0.6

• Here the ROC is just outside the circle

going through the point z  0.6
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• A sequence can be one of the following
types: finite-length, right-sided, left-sided
and two-sided
• In general, the ROC depends on the type of
the sequence of interest
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• Example - A right-sided sequence with
nonzero sample values for n  0 is
sometimes called a causal sequence
• Consider a causal sequence u1[n]
• Its z-transform is given by

n
U1 ( z )   1
u [ n ] z
n 0
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• It can be shown that U1 ( z ) converges
exterior to a circle z  R1 , including the
point z  
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• Example - A left-sided sequence with
nonzero sample values for n  0 is
sometimes called a anticausal sequence
• Consider an anticausal sequence v1[ n]
• Its z-transform is given by
0
n
V1 ( z )  1
v [ n ] z
n  
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• It can be shown that V1 ( z ) converges
interior to a circle z  R3 , including the
point z = 0
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• Example - Consider the two-sided sequence
u[n]  a n
where a can be either real or complex
• Its z-transform is given by
  1
n z n  n z n  n z n
U ( z)   a  a  a
n   n 0 n  
• The first term on the RHS converges for
z  a , whereas the second term converges
for z  a
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• There is no overlap between these two
regions
• Hence, the z-transform of u[n]  a n does
not exist
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• The ROC of a rational z-transform cannot
contain any poles and is bounded by the
poles
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• The ROC of a rational z-transform can be
easily determined using MATLAB
• [z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den)
determines the zeros, poles, and the gain
constant of a rational z-transform with the
numerator coefficients specified by the
vector num and the denominator coefficients
specified by the vector den
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• [num,den] = zp2tf(z,p,k)
implements the reverse process
• The factored form of the z-transform can be
obtained using sos = zp2sos(z,p,k)
• The above statement computes the
coefficients of each second-order factor
given as an L  6 matrix sos
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
 b01 b11 b21 a01 a11 a12 
 b02 b12 b22 a02 a12 a22 
sos  
      
b b1L b2L a0L a1L a2L 
 0L
where
L b0k  b1k z 1  b2k z 2
G( z)   1  a z  2
a
k 1 0 k  a1k z 2k
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• The pole-zero plot is determined using the
function zplane
• The z-transform can be either described in
terms of its zeros and poles:
zplane(zeros,poles)
• or, it can be described in terms of its
numerator and denominator coefficients:
zplane(num,den)
 ROC of a Rational
z-Transform
• Example - The pole-zero plot of
2 z 4  16 z 3  44 z 2  56 z  32
G( z) 
3 z 4  3 z 3  15 z 2  18z  12
obtained using MATLAB is shown below
2

1
  pole
Imaginary Part

0 o  zero
-1

-2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Part
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• A rational z-transform G(z) with a causal
inverse transform g[n] has an ROC that is
exterior to a circle
• Here it is more convenient to express G(z)
in a partial-fraction expansion form and
then determine g[n] by summing the inverse
transform of the individual simpler terms in
the expansion
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• A rational G(z) can be expressed as
i
G( z )  P( z )

i 0 i
M
p z
D( z ) i
i 0 i
N
d z

• If M  N then G(z) can be re-expressed as

M N
 P1 ( z )
G( z )    z  D( z )
 0
where the degree of P1(z ) is less than N
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• The rational function P1( z ) / D( z ) is called a
proper fraction
• Example - Consider
1 2 3
2  0.8 z  0.5 z  0.3 z
G( z )  1 2
1  0.8 z  0.2 z
• By long division we arrive at
1
1 5.5  2.1 z
G( z )  3.5  1.5 z  1 2
1  0.8 z  0.2 z
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• Simple Poles: In most practical cases, the
rational z-transform of interest G(z) is a
proper fraction with simple poles
• Let the poles of G(z) be at z  k , 1  k  N
• A partial-fraction expansion of G(z) is then
of the form
N 
G( z )   1
 11   z
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• The constants  in the partial-fraction
expansion are called the residues and are
given by
  (1   z 1)G( z ) z 

• Each term of the sum in partial-fraction
expansion has an ROC given by z  
and, thus has an inverse transform of the
form  ( ) [n]
n
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• Therefore, the inverse transform g[n] of
G(z) is given by
N
g[n]    ( ) [n]
n
 1
• Note: The above approach with a slight
modification can also be used to determine
the inverse of a rational z-transform of a
noncausal sequence
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• Example - Let the z-transform H(z) of a
causal sequence h[n] be given by
1
z ( z  2) 1 2 z
H ( z)  
( z  0.2)( z  0.6) (1  0.2 z 1 )(1  0.6 z 1 )
• A partial-fraction expansion of H(z) is then
of the form
1 2
H ( z)  1
 1
1  0.2 z 1  0.6 z
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• Now
1  2 z 1
1  (1  0.2 z 1) H ( z ) z 0.2   2.75
1  0.6 z 1 z 0.2
and
1  2 z 1
 2  (1  0.6 z 1) H ( z ) z 0.6   1.75
1  0.2 z 1 z 0.6
 Inverse Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion
• Hence
2.75 1.75
H ( z)  1

1  0.2 z 1  0.6 z 1
• The inverse transform of the above is
therefore given by
h[n]  2.75(0.2) [n]  1.75(0.6) [n]
n n
 Partial-Fraction Expansion
Using MATLAB
• [r,p,k]= residuez(num,den)
develops the partial-fraction expansion of
a rational z-transform with numerator and
denominator coefficients given by vectors
num and den
• Vector r contains the residues
• Vector p contains the poles
• Vector k contains the constants
 Partial-Fraction Expansion
Using MATLAB
• [num,den]=residuez(r,p,k)
converts a z-transform expressed in a
partial-fraction expansion form to its
rational form
Inverse z-Transform via Long
Division
• The z-transform G(z) of a causal sequence
1
{g[n]} can be expanded in a power series in z
• In the series expansion, the coefficient
n
multiplying the term z is then the n-th
sample g[n]
• For a rational z-transform expressed as a
1
ratio of polynomials in z , the power series
expansion can be obtained by long division
 Inverse z-Transform via Long
Division
• Example - Consider
1  2 z 1
H ( z) 
1  0.4 z 1  0.12 z 2
• Long division of the numerator by the
denominator yields
H ( z )  1  1.6 z 1  0.52 z 2  0.4 z 3  0.2224 z 4  ....
• As a result
{h[n]}  {1 1.6  0.52 0.4  0.2224 ....}, n  0

 Inverse z-Transform Using
MATLAB
• The function impz can be used to find the
inverse of a rational z-transform G(z)
• The function computes the coefficients of
the power series expansion of G(z)
• The number of coefficients can either be
user specified or determined automatically