Mobile Communication System

Frequency
Multiple Access
Technology

User 1
User 2
.
. .

User n
Time

Code

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Contention Protocols

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Readings for this Lecture

• Chapters
– Introduction to Wireless and Mobile Systems
• Chapter 6 Multiple Radio Access
• Chapter 7 Multiple Division Techniques
– Principles of Wireless Networks: A Unified Approach
• Chapter 4 Wireless Medium Access
– 4.2 Fixed-Assignment Access……
– 4.3 Random Access for ……

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Outline
• Multiple access techniques are used to allow sharing of a
finite amount of radio spectrum by many simultaneous users.
• The major multiple access techniques:
– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• Direct Sequence CDMA
• Frequency Hopping CDMA
– Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
• Contention based Protocols
– ALOHA
– CSMA CSMA/CD CSMA/CA

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Classification of Multiple Access Protocols

Multiple access protocols

Contention-based Conflict-free

Random access Collision resolution

ALOHA, TREE, FDMA,

CSMA, WINDOW, TDMA,
etc
etc CDMA,
SDMA
Token Bus etc

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Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

• The frequency band is divided into channels of
equal bandwidth such that each conversation is
carried on a different frequency.
• Best suited to analog mobile radio.
• Single channel per carrier
• All first generation systems use FDMA

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Channels of an FDMA system (schematic)

• FDMA assigns individual channels to individual users.
• During the period of the call, no other user can share the
same channel.

Frequency
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FDMA Transmitter

ω1
m1(t)
FDMA Transmitter
Modulator
1
ω2
m2(t) Modulator RF
2
∑ Modulator
…

ωn
mn(t) Modulator
n

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FDMA Receiver

Demodulator m1(t)
ω1
1

Demodulator m2(t)
RF ω2
2
Demodulator

…
Demodulator mn(t)
ωn
n
FDMA Receiver

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Examples in Mobile Comm. System

• Control channel
– Forward (Downlink) control channel
– Reverse (Uplink) control channel
• Traffic channel
– Forward traffic (traffic or information) channel
– Reverse traffic (traffic or information) channel

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Types of Channels
Reverse channel (Uplink) Control channels
f’

f 1’
f 2’
…

f n’
f1
f2

…
fn

Forward channels
MS Traffic channels BS
(Downlink)

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FDMA

f 1’ f1
MS #1

f 2’ f2
MS #2 …

…
…

f n’ fn
MS #n

BS
Reverse channels Forward channels
(Uplink) (Downlink)

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FDMA: Channel Structure

Guard Band Wg Sub Band Wc

1 2 3 4 … N
Frequency

Total Bandwidth W=NWc

f 1’ f 2’ fn’ f1 f2 fn

… …
Frequency
Reverse channels Forward channels
Protecting bandwidth

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The features of FDMA

• The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at any time.
• An idle FDMA channel cannot be used by another user.
• FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.
• The symbol time is large compared to the average delay
spread, therefore, the amount of ISI is low, and little or no
equalization is required.
• Tight filtering is required which increases the cost of both
mobile terminal and a base station.
• Because of the nonlinearities, there is a problem of
intermodulation interference, resulting in the adjacent-
channel interference.
• To limit the adjacent-channel interference to other systems, a
guard band at the edges of allocated spectrum is used.

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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

• TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots, and
in each slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or
receive.
• TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and burst method,
thus the transmission for any user is noncontinuous.
• Multiple channels per carrier
• Most of second generation systems use TDMA

Time
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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

• The individual mobile stations are cyclically
assigned a frequency for exclusive use only for the
duration of a time slot.
• TDMA is a more expensive technique
– needs a highly accurate synchronization between
transmitter and receiver
• The TDMA technique is used in digital mobile radio
systems.

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TDMA system

M1(t) M1(t)

Demodulator
M2(t) M2(t)

Modulator

RF
RF
Mn(t) Mn(t)

Timing and Timing and

synchronization synchronization

Simplified block diagram of a TDMA system

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TDMA
Frequency f ’ Slot Frequency f

… … … … … …
#1

#1

#1
#1
MS #1 t t
… … … … … …
#2

#2

#2

#2
MS #2 t t
…

… … … … … …

#n

#n
#n

#n
MS #n t t

Frame Frame Frame Frame

BS
Reverse channels Forward channels
(Uplink) (Downlink)

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TDMA: Channel Structure

f
Frame Frame Frame

… … …
#1
#2

#1

#2
#n
#1

#2

#n

#n
t

(a). Forward channel

f’
Frame Frame Frame

… … …
#1
#2

#1

#2
#n
#1

#2

#n

#n
t
(b). Reverse channel

Channels in FDD Mode

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TDMA: Frame Structure (Cont’d)

Frequency
f=f’
Frame Frame

… … … …
#1

#2

#1

#2

#n
#n
#1

#2

#n

#n

#1

#2
Time

Forward Reverse Forward Reverse

channel channel channel channel

Channels in Simplex Mode (TDD)

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TDMA: Frame Structure (Cont’d)

Frequency
Frame Frame Frame

… … …
#1
#2

#1

#2
#n
#1

#2

#n

#n
Time

Head Data
Guard
time

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TDMA channels on multiple carrier frequencies

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TDMA with use of frequency hopping technique

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The features of TDMA

• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users,
where each user makes use of nonoverlapping time slots．
• Data transmission for users of TDMA system occurs in bursts.
• Because of a discontinuous transmission, the handoff
process is simpler for a mobile unit, as it can listen to the
base stations during idle time slots.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and the
reception.
• Because of the transmission rates much higher than in FDMA,
adaptive equalizers are usually required.
• The guard time between the slots is required.
• High synchronization overhead is required because of burst
transmissions.

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

• Systems with CDMA are broadband systems
• All the subscribers in a cell use the same frequency
band simultaneously
• The subscribers are assigned orthogonal codes to
separate the signals.
• The signal of one subscriber is spread spectrally
over a multiple of its original bandwidth.

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Frequency

User 1
User 2
.
..

User n
Time

Code
• Users share bandwidth by using code sequences that are orthogonal to each other
• Some second generation systems use CDMA
• Most of third generation systems use CDMA

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Frequency f ’ Frequency f
MS #1 C1 ’ C1

MS #2 C2 ’ C2
…

…
…

Cn ’ Cn
MS #n

BS
Reverse channels Forward channels
(Uplink) (Downlink)

Note: Ci’ x Cj’ = 0, i.e., Ci’ and Cj’ are orthogonal codes,
Ci x Cj = 0, i.e., Ci and Cj are orthogonal codes
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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum for

CDMA
Transmitter Receiver

Spreading Despread

Digital signal
Digital signal Spreading signal s(t)
s(t) m(t)

Code Code
c(t) c(t)
Power Power Power

Frequency Frequency Frequency

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Concept of Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum
Transmitter Receiver
Spreading Despread

Digital signal Spreading signal Digital signal

Hopping Pattern Hopping Pattern

Power Power Power

Frequency Frequency
Frequency

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An Example of Frequency Hopping Pattern

Frequency

Time

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The features of CDMA

• Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency．
• CDMA has a soft capacity limit.
• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the
signal is spread over a large spectrum.
• Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems.
• Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use macroscopic
spatial diversity to provide soft handoff.
• Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system.
• The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an
undesired user has a high detected power as compared to
the desired user.

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Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

• Space division multiple access (SDMA) controls the
radiated energy for each user in space.
• SDMA serves different users by using spot beam
antennas.
• Sectorized antennas may be thought of as a
primitive application of SDMA,
• In the future, adaptive antennas will be used to
simultaneously steer energy in the direction of many
users
– It appear to be best suited for TDMA and CDMA base
station architectures．

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Multiple access procedures

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SDMA - Array antennas

• A perfect adaptive antenna system would be able to track
individual multipath components for each user and combine
them in an optimal manner to collect all of the available signal
energy from each user.
• The perfect adaptive antenna system is not feasible since it
requires infinitely large antennas.
Array antennas
• gains might be achieved using reasonably sized arrays with
moderate directivities．

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Multipath signal at an antenna array

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Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

• Multipath propagatioin
– frequency-selective fading phenomena
– the spatial fanning out of signals
– the received signal to be a summation signal
• The directions of incidence of these multipath
components could be distributed arbitrarily at the
receiver
• Space division multiple access (SDMA)
• SDMA controls the radiated energy for each user in
space.

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Introduction Contention Protocols

• ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA
• CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
• CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
• CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)

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Introduction
• Multiple access control channels
– Each node is attached to a transmitter/receiver which
communicates via a channel shared by other nodes
– Transmission from any node is received by other nodes

Node 3

Node 4
Node 2 Shared Multiple
Access Control

…
Channel to BS

Node 1 Node N
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Introduction (Cont’d)
• Multiple access issues
– If more than one node transmit at a time on the control channel to
BS, a collision occurs
– How to determine which node can transmit to BS?
• Multiple access protocols
– Solving multiple access issues
– Different types:
• Contention protocols resolve a collision after it occurs. These
protocols execute a collision resolution protocol after each
collision
• Collision-free protocols (e.g., a bit-map protocol and binary
countdown) ensure that a collision can never occur.

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Channel Sharing Techniques

Static
Channelization

Channel Sharing
Techniques
Scheduling

Dynamic Medium
Access Control
Random Access

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Contention Protocols

• ALOHA
– Developed in the 1970s for a packet radio network by Hawaii
University.
– Whenever a station has a data, it transmits. Sender finds out whether
transmission was successful or experienced a collision by listening to
the broadcast from the destination station. Sender retransmits after
some random time if there is a collision.
• Slotted ALOHA
– Improvement: Time is slotted and a packet can only be transmitted at
the beginning of one slot. Thus, it can reduce the collision duration.

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Contention Protocols (Cont’d)

• CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
– Improvement: Start transmission only if no transmission is ongoing
• CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
– Improvement: Stop ongoing transmission if a collision is detected
• CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
– Improvement: Wait a random time and try again when carrier is quiet. If
still quiet, then transmit
• CSMA/CA with ACK
• CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS

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ALOHA

Node 1 Packet Waiting a random time

Node 2 Packet
Retransmission Retransmission

1 2 3 3 2
Time
Collision

Node 3 Packet

Collision mechanism in ALOHA

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Slotted ALOHA

Node 1 Packet

Nodes 2 & 3 Packets

Retransmission Retransmission

1 2&3 2 3
Time

Slot Collision

Collision mechanism in slotted ALOHA

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Throughput
0.5

0.4 0.368

0.3
Slotted Aloha
S

0.2 0.184

0.1 Aloha

00 2 4 6 8
G

G
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CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

• Max throughput achievable by slotted ALOHA is
0.368.
• CSMA gives improved throughput compared to Aloha
protocols.
• Listens to the channel before transmitting a packet
(avoid avoidable collisions).

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Collision Mechanism in CSMA

Node 5 sense
Node 1 Packet
Node 2 Packet
Node 3 Packet Delay

1 2 3 4 5
Time
Delay Collision

Node 4 sense

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CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)

• In CSMA, if 2 terminals begin sending packet at the
same time, each will transmit its complete packet
(although collision is taking place).
• Wasting medium for an entire packet time.
• CSMA/CD
– Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit
– Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until
the channel is idle then transmit
– Step 3: If a collision is detected during transmission,
cease transmitting
– Step 4: Wait a random amount of time and repeats
the same algorithm

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CSMA/CA (CSMA with collision Avoidance)

• All terminals listen to the same medium as CSMA/CD.
• Terminal ready to transmit senses the medium.
• If medium is busy it waits until the end of current transmission.
• It again waits for an additional predetermined time period
DIFS (Distributed inter frame Space).
• Then picks up a random number of slots (the initial value of
backoff counter) within a contention window to wait before
transmitting its frame.
• If there are transmissions by other terminals during this time
period (backoff time), the terminal freezes its counter.
• It resumes count down after other terminals finish
transmission + DIFS. The terminal can start its transmission
when the counter reaches to zero.

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Exercises
1. Why did the 2G cellular systems shift from analog FDMA to digital
TDMA and CDMA?
2. Name three standards using TDMA/TDD as their access method?
3. What are the advantages of the CDMA access techniques?
4. What is the difference between performance evaluation of voice
oriented fixed assignment and data oriented random access
methods ?
5. In radio ALOHA network, how does a terminal learn that its packet is
collided?
6. Explain the difference between carrier-sending mechanisms in the
wired and wireless channels

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