Valve, Piping & Pipeline

Handbook

Chapter II
Valve Type design and Construction
 Contents
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
2. Ball Valves
3. Ball Float Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
6. Globe Valves
7. Gate Valves
8. Needle Valves
9. Pinch Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
11. Slide Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
13. Spool Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
15. Swing-Check (Flap) Valves
16. Penstocks
17. Miscellaneous Valves
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
The description 'plug valve' or 'cock valve' is given to the simplest
form of valve comprising a body with a tapered or, less frequently, a
parallel seating into which a plug fits. The plug is formed with a through-
port, the relative position of the port controlling the amount of opening
through the valve (Figure 1). A 90° rotation of the plug fully opens or
closes the fluid flow.
Greek and Roman periods saw the development of the plug cock valve
and it remained virtually unchanged until the 19th century.
The development of the steam engine from the early 18th century led
to further valve improvements including the introduction by Timothy
Hackworth of adjustable springs instead of weights to the steam safety
valve.
The groove-packed plug cock was introduced by Dewarance & Co in
1875, making a valve which was easier to operate and more suitable for
steam. In 1886, Joseph Hopkinson introduced the parallel slide valve
where the sealing of the valve was produced by line pressure on the disc.
This system is still manufactured today. Plug cock valves are not as
efficient as ball valves and can only operate fully open or closed.
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
The simple plug valve is generally suitable for low-pressure, low-
temperature applications, and can be made in quite large sizes: 250 to 300
mm (10 to 12 in) bore is quite common in some applications. Its main
limitation is that if wide variations in fluid temperature are involved,
differential expansion is inevitable, leading either to undue stiffness of
operation or loss of pressure-tightness.
This can be overcome to some extent by employing a packed gland on
which the plug rides (Figure 2). The packing is commonly graphited asbestos.
In the smaller range, the sleeve-packed cock represents a distinct step
forward in cock design (Figure 3). Not only does this have a perfectly
cylindrical plug, more economical to produce than a tapered one, but the
resilience afforded by the asbestos fabric sleeve longitudinally compressed by
the two plugs screwed into both top and bottom of the body provides for
temperature variations and thereby prevents binding.
In the UK, the description `plug valve' is specifically given to a cock which
incorporates special design features to reduce the friction between the
plug face and the body seat. The plug itself may be tapered or parallel and the
movement plain or lubricated (Figure 4). There is also a further variation
known as a ball-plug valve, where the plug element is spherical, with
circular ports rotating between circular seats of concave section (Figure 5).
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
Plug valves maybe further categorised by pattern:
(i) Round opening-with full-bore round ports in both plug and body.
(ii) Rectangular (rectangular opening) with rectangular or similar
shaped ports of substantially full-bore section.
(iii) Standard opening-where the area through the valve is less than the
area of standard pipe.
(iv) Diamond port-where the opening through the valve is
diamondshaped. Such valves are also normally of venturi design.
(v) Multi-port-with three or more pipe connections, used mainly for
transfer or diverting services.
(vi) Venturi design-with reduced-area porting (down to 40%) and
featuring venturi flow through the body.
(vii) Short-with reduced-area ports and/or reduced face-to-face
dimensions.
(viii) Vertical-with reduced-area seating ports and the plug passages
reduced in section to form a throat.
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
Materials
Cocks and plug valves are produced in a variety of metals and plastics
and also include lined types. Metals most commonly used are brass,
bronze, steel and stainless steel.
Basic design proportions
A rectangular- or trapezoid-section port is commonly preferred as
this can be accommodated in a plug of smaller diameter than that
required for a circular port of the same area. The width of the port is then
often made less than half of the bore to provide an effective positive lap
for sealing. The length of port is then given by d/2, where d is the pipe
diameter. In practice a small addition is usually made to this length to
allow for radiusing the corners of the opening.
In the case of multi-port cocks or plug valves, negative lap may be
called for to ensure that there is no complete shut-off during the
transition of ports. This applies particularly when connected to a
positive displacement pump (i.e. to prevent the pump pumping against a
closed outlet).
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
Pressure-balanced taper-plug valves
In larger taper-plug valves, pressure-balanced plugs are fitted for
pressure pulsing or very high static pressure applications. With a non-
pressure balanced plug, line pressure in an open valve can find its way
into the large end chamber which exists below the plug. Under these
conditions a resultant force exists tending to push the plug into its
tapered seat with the danger of taper locking causing a seized valve, as
shown in Figure 6(a). This resultant force persists whether the line
pressure subsequently remains high or is reduced.
The development of an out-of-balance force on the plug is not an
inevitable event with ordinary taper-plug valves, as there is normally
sealant pressure acting on the small end of the plug. Nevertheless it can
occur and can cause valve seizure.
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
1. Plug Valves (Cocks)
With a pressure-balanced valve, the live-line pressure is used to replace
sealant pressure by allowing the line to pressurize the small end chamber.
A balancing force is produced which prevents taper lock without the
need for sealant pressure. Figure 6(b) shows how a more balanced
position is reached when line pressure is allowed to equalise the pressure
acting on the end of the plug.
The pressure-balance system consists of two holes in the plug
connecting chambers at each end of the plug with the line pressure. The
hole in the small end of the plug contains a non-return valve. This
enables sealant pressure to be built up if necessary, while allowing access
of the line pressure to the small end chamber. Thus the pressure in the
large end chamber always equals line pressure and the pressure in the
small end chamber is always equal to, or greater than, the line pressure.
2. Ball Valves
The ball valve, or spherical-plug valve as it is sometimes known,
was developed around 1936, although the idea of a ball valve dates back
to ancient times. Modern ball valves, depending on type and pressure
class, should be designed in conformity with international standards, e.g.
BS 5351, API 6D and ANSIB 16.34. Normally, ball valves have
polymer-based seals.
Ball valves are among the least expensive but most widely used of all
valve types, as well as being available in an extremely wide range of
sizes. Basic geometry involves a spherical ball located by two resilient
sealing rings in a simple body form (Figure 1).
The ball has a hole through one axis, connecting inlet to outlet with
full-bore flow when aligned with the axis of the valve. Rotating the ball
through 900 completely closes the flow passage with positive sealing
via the sealing rings. Sealing is equally effective in both directions.
Body forms and matching ball hole may provide straight-through (full-
bore parallel), reduced flow, or venturi flow. Ends can be flanged or
threaded.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
The ball itself may be free floating, in which case the squared off or
splined end of the stem fits into a matching recess in the top of the ball.
On larger valves the ball may be trunnion-mounted. Trunnion mounting
reduces operating torque to about two-thirds that of the floating ball
(Figure 2).
Ball valves are produced in top-entry and split-body forms for
assembly and for renewal of the seals and ball. They are also produced in
multi-port configurations, thus normally requiring a larger size of ball to
accommodate multi-port drillings. These ports can be proportioned to
give positive lap or negative lap as required (see also Figure 3).
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
Full operating movement is 90° rotation of the ball. Steps maybe
incorporated to limit movement of the operating lever, or continuous
rotation may be possible. In either case the lever position is in line with
the axis of the valve in the open position and at right angles to it in the
closed position. Larger ball valves may be operated by handwheels
through reduction gearing, or by powered actuators. In all cases
opening/closing torque is low because the only friction forces
involved are those of the ball rotating against its seals and the friction
offered by the stem gland. The latter can range from 0-rings to glands
fitted with die-formed packing rings. In some ball valves the ball
is held against the seat by the cam action of a specially shaped
stem. By turning the valve handwheel the ball is pulled away from
the seat before being rotated. A precision spiral groove turns the stem
and ball 90°, without ball-to-seat friction, to full-straight through-flow
when open. The reverse action lowers the stem, turning the ball to the
closed position, and the final handwheel turn tilts the ball and
mechanically wedges it against the seat to seal the valve closed.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
Historically, ball valves have been produced with soft, not metal seats
because generally soft seats have covered most applications
satisfactorily. Many valves of this type have seals made from PTFE,
compounded with graphite, glass or steel powder to improve the material
properties. However, abrasive media, high pressures and high
temperatures can severely stress the polymeric seals normally used and
lead to damage (Figure 4).
For nominal diameters of # DN50 PTFE, seals can only be
loaded to a full pressure of PN100 up to a temperature of
approximately 100°C; with nominal diameters above DN80, the
operating pressure is limited to 50 bar. Only gradual improvements
can be made if highly resistant polymers such as POM are used.
Upper temperature limits are 250°C with huge restrictions on
pressure/load capacity.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
Metal-seated ball valves
Metal-seated ball valves first came to prominence in the 1960s. They
offer a number of advantages including: tight shut-off, smooth control, no
jamming, low torque, wide temperature range, good corrosion and wear
resistance and stability under pressure. The greatest risk to metal-seated
ball valves is posed by corrosion through pitting, fretting corrosion,
intercrystalline corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. Media that contain
even low quantities of aggressive substances are capable of causing corrosion.
Metal seals do not bed in as easily as soft seals under pressure. It is
therefore important for the ball and sealing rings to be machined precisely
and have both hard- and low-friction coatings applied to the base material.
Metallic seats tend to employ both nickel- and cobalt-based alloys and
elements such as chrome and tungsten. However, the trend appears to be
towards the use of different surface coatings for ball and sealing rings
and choosing between them to suit the various circumstances. With the seat-
supported ball valve (Figure 5). the valve seals on the downstream side. The
upstream pressure pushes the ball against the downstream seat, closing it
tightly.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
In the trunnion-mounted ball valve with a bellows seat (Figure 6), the
valve seals on the upstream side. The internal pressure expands the
bellows axially, pushing the seat against the ball. The seat is pressure-
assisted and spring energised. The bellows seat acts as the seating component.
This type of ball valve is suitable for the most demanding on-off services.
The special control seat shown in Figure 7 works like a normal
pressure assisted seat in trunnion-mounted ball valves. The upstream pressure is
led through the hole behind the seat, pushing it against the ball. The seat is
spring-energised to ensure low-pressure tightness. In control, the high-velocity
flow passes through the restriction point of the partly open valve. The high
velocity creates low pressure, which is led behind the ball seat through the
hole located in the vena contracta. The seat will thus be unloaded.
The sealing principle of the floating-ball valve example shown in Figure
8 is effected at the downstream seat where the ball is pressed against the
opposite seat by the medium pressure. In doing so the seat rings have a double
function. They seal off and at the same time serve as a bearing. The seal at the
upstream seat can be relieved in order to avoid a build-up of pressure.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
The sealing principle of the fixed-ball valve example shown in Figure 9
is one where the sealing is effected at the upstream seat where the
spring supported seat is pressed against the fixed ball by the medium
pressure.
The ball itself can be fixed by bearing pads in the body, by trunnions or
by bearing stems. A pressure build-up is prevented by the spring-
supported seats in connection with the fixed ball. To summarise,
effective sealing depends on:
• the contact pressure
• the contact surface of the seat
• the accuracy of the surface finish on the ball and ball seat
• the sealing design and the sealing material
Generally, ball valves are sealed by applying a load to a soft seating
material between the valve body and ball to create localised yielding.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
Seals of plastic material usually depend on localised yield to achieve
bubbletight sealing. The problem with a jam seat is that increasing the
shut-off pressure can increase plastic deformation. As long as pressure
remains at a high level this is not a problem; leakage may occur if the
shut-off pressure is decreased. A jam seat has no pressure
compensation. Another area to consider about jam seats is temperature
swings.
With increasing temperatures, metallic ball and valve casings
expand. PTFE valve seats expand at a much higher rate and if the
temperature change is high enough, the jam seat will tend to
generate a 'self stress' above its yield strength and deform plastically
beyond its initial state. When the valve is cooled, shrinkage of the
additionally deformed seat may result in leakage.
2. Ball Valves
A possible way of overcoming this is to employ valves with flexible
lip seats (Figure 10) or seats that incorporate a separate double block
and bleed design. Another aspect to consider with soft-seated ball
valves is built-in body-cavity pressure relief. Ordinary water trapped in
a valve cavity without air will increase in pressure by about 100 lb/int.
The pressure/temperature relationships of most common liquids are in
the order of 90-110 lb/in2 per °F (11.2-13.7 bar per °C).
The cavity area created by the two soft seats of a ball valve is a typical
area for pressure increases. While the valve is open, any pressure in the
cavity zone created by the ball, seat and body can be vented via a hole
from the bottom of the stem slot to the ball waterway.
In the closed position, relieving cavity pressure is more difficult.
Some valves have a vent hole in the ball. Cavity-pressure increases
derive from the differential thermal expansion rates of incompressible
fluids and typically a venting of one hundredth of a cc of trapped liquid
will bring cavity pressure back to normal.
The key to ball-valve performance is the sealing (seating) structure,
regardless of whether the seats are metal or plastic.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
Pressure-temperature ratings
The pressure-temperature ratings of soft-seated ball valves are
determined not only by the valve body materials, but also by the sealing
material used for ball seats. Sealing materials for seats may be PTFE,
15% or 25% glass-filled PTFE, FPM, Celastic, N.R.G., POM, Lyton and
steel.
New and improved polymers are being developed all the time for
coating and sealing and the use of ceramics is becoming widespread. It is
very difficult to pre-determine exact pressure-temperature ratings for all
kinds of media under all imaginable conditions. The chart shown in
Figure 11 gives a typical general overview.
Pressure-temperature seat ratings indicated by the solid lines on
the chart are based on differential pressure with the ball in fully-closed
position and refer only to seats. The dotted lines indicate the
maximum working pressures for carbon-steel valve bodies made
from TstE 355N (equal to ASTM A350 LF2). For ratings of other
body materials refer to ANSI B 16.34. Pressure-temperature seat ratings
for metal-seated valves are the same as the body ratings.
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
Flow data
Typical flow data is shown in Table 1. The flow rates were determined for
ball valves in fully-open position and a water temperature of 15°C (59°F).
Typical major application areas for ball valves include:
Refineries
• shut-off and isolation valves for tower bottom lines and thermal-
cracking units with coke problems
• gas/oil separation
• gas distribution including measuring, metering and pressure regulation
stations
• controlling oil loading
• pumping and compressor stations
• emergency shut-down
• refining units
Chemical and petrochemical complexes
• low differential pressure control
• emission control
• handling highly viscous fluids. abrasive slurries or corrosives as well
as non-corrosives in processes and storing facilities
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
2. Ball Valves
Power industry
• boiler feedwater control
• control and shut-off for steam
• burner trip valves
• sluicing valves for feeding coal into pressurised combustors and for extracting fly ash
Gas and oil production
• subsea isolation and shut-down
• well-head isolation
• pipeline surge control
• secondary and enhanced oil recovery
• processing separation
• transmission and distribution
• storage
Pulp and paper industry
• pulp mill digesters
• shut-off valves batch-digester blow service
• liquor fill and circulation
• lime mud (slurry) flow control
• dilution water control
Other common areas for the application of ball valves include: food industry, water
supply and transport, marine and solids transport.
3. Ball Float Valves
The typical ball float valve consists of a control valve of the piston and
disc-type operated by a floating ball and lever mechanism adjusted to
open the valve at a predetermined liquid level. It is thus essentially a
level-control valve and is used mainly for controlling the supply of
make-up water (e.g. in cisterns, water tanks, etc.)
The most effective type is the equilibrium ball float valve (Figure 1),
so called because the upward and downward pressure forces are
nearly balanced out (leaving just enough unbalance to eliminate
hunting). The basic type finds widespread application. The body is
usually of angle pattern with the inlet Banged and bolted to the inlet
pipe flange with the tank wall sandwiched between.
3. Ball Float Valves
3. Ball Float Valves
3. Ball Float Valves
3. Ball Float Valves
Design geometry calculation
Design geometry calculations for ball float valves can be tedious. As
far as fluid forces are concerned there is an upward force at the valve
position due to mains pressure tending to force the float downwards,
which will normally be resisted by the displacement force generated
by the float under equilibrium conditions (Figure 2). These
equilibrium conditions correspond to the valve being held closed by a
surplus of `displacement' force. (In the event of the water level falling, of
course, the valve will open to allow inflow of water until equilibrium
conditions are restored.)
3. Ball Float Valves
3. Ball Float Valves
3. Ball Float Valves
3. Ball Float Valves
Thus the basic relationship is modified by:
(i) The necessity of maintaining a positive closing force on the valve
for fluid tightness. An empirical figure here is to make DF equal to 1.25 x
VF.
(ii) Additional movements introduced by the weight of the lever on
both sides of the fulcrum or pivot point and the weight of the float. These
can be calculated or eliminated by counterbalancing.
(iii) Frictional resistance of the pivot and rising part(s) of the valve.
This will call for an additional increase in displacement force, i.e. float
size. It is difficult to establish required values except on empirical
lines as frictional forces may be subject to change with age.
It may be further necessary to evaluate the displacement force with the
float fully submerged (when DF = 0.02 D3) and the resulting loading on
the fulcrum pin. Design should allow adequate sheer strength on the pin
to allow for this contingency, particularly in ball float systems used with
level controls in large tanks and/or inaccessible positions.
4. Butterfly Valves
Since it was first introduced well over one hundred years ago, the butterfly
valve has come through many development stages to become one of the most
successful high-performance valves in use today.
The first butterfly valve was used by James Watt, the Scottish engineer, for
his steam engine. It was also used in the Mercedes motor car in 1901 for the
fuel intake linked to the accelerator pedal.
Initially, butterfly valves were limited to low pressure drop applications
and sizes that were about six inches or more. They also tended not to seal too
well.
In basic terms, a butterfly valve uses a flat disc in which the closure device
rotates about an axis regulating the flow of liquids with off-centre or in-line
sealing. Smaller sizes usually have manual operation, but much larger devices
such as penstock control valves are usually motorised.
Butterfly valves can offer attractive cost savings and operating benefits over
conventional globe valves. With high flow capacities, butterfly valves enable
the use of smaller units which reduces cost, weight and space requirements.
With only two wetted parts and a range of valve linings, butterfly valves isolate
the body from the media, thus eliminating the need for expensive exotic
materials.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
The smooth contoured, crevice-free disc produces lower torques, while
the butterfly valve design makes it easy to install, maintain and service.
The two main groupings are general purpose butterfly valves and
highperformance butterfly valves. Butterfly valves have the disadvantage
that they restrict the flow through the pipe and solids catching on the disc
can cause a blockage or prevent the valve from closing. Butterfly valves
are used in high-temperature, high-pressure applications or those
involving toxic or corrosive fluids. Modern butterfly valves are normally
of wafer design, fitting directly between pipeline flanges. Double-
eccentric (offset) design butterfly valves have the sealing plane of the
disc offset from the axis of rotation to create an interrupted sealing
surface and the axis of the disc is laterally displaced from the true
centre of the disc so that the disc will 'cam' away from the seat as the
valve is cycled open.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Butterfly valve movement is simple and straightforward, requiring
only 90° rotation of the butterfly for full movement (or somewhat
less in most designs).
The main technologically significant features of a butterfly valve
are the designs of the disc and the seat. Nearly all modern high-
performance butterfly valves incorporate some form of double-offset
design as previously described.
The two offsets in a typical butterfly disc are shown in Figure 1.
Body construction is normally cast iron, ductile iron, cast steel,
bronze and epoxy. Various other materials may be used depending
on size and application. Welded materials (e.g. steel, stainless steel
and titanium) may be used for certain valves and in particular where
percolation of gases through cast components is to be prevented.
Discs are also usually of cast iron, although again alternative materials
may be specified for particular services. Profile shapes vary, most
having some form of convex streamline shape to minimise head loss.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Valve seats
The seat (closure member) of the butterfly valve is an area where there
are as many designs as there are manufacturers of butterfly valves. A
single-piece flexible PTFE seat has proved to be a popular choice, with
thick cross-sections throughout the seat, pre-compression of the seat for
low-pressure sealing and clearances surrounding the seat to allow
flexibility.
The significance of the single-piece seat is that there are no O-rings or
metallic springs to limit the temperature or corrosive conditions that the
PTFE seat can be exposed to.
A typical example of PTFE seat design is shown in Figure 2 where the
disc is downstream of the seat.
As line pressure is applied, the full cross-section of the seat is
pressurised, which causes the seat to follow the natural deflections of the
disc under pressure. Pressure activation of the seat enhances sealing
with increasing line pressure, despite the fact that the disc is moving
away from the seat due to the same pressure.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
With the flow in the opposite direction, with the seat downstream of
the disc, the seat is supported by the seat retainer (Figure 3). The disc is
deflected by pressure into the seat, enhancing the sealing as the pressure
increases.
A wafer-type butterfly valve is shown in Figure 4. Typically the valve
consists of a stainless steel disc/stem in a polymer seat. fastened by two
half-body cartridges. This particular valve has three side thrust-absorbing
bushes, one top and bottom and one directly above the seat with a
secondary 0-ring seat adjacent.
Fully rubber-lined butterfly valves, similar to the type shown in
Figure 5, incorporate a rubber lining that is bonded and integral with
the valve body. The main advantage here is that there is little or no
deformation of the lining or corrosion to the body.
Ebonite-lined butterfly valves are designed for use in systems
which carry seawater and other moderately aggressive liquids.
Ebonite is a hard natural or synthetic rubber.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Ceramic- and fluoropolymer-lined valves are gaining in popularity
for controlling highly corrosive and abrasive liquids, gases, slurries
and powders.
Another basic arrangement is a corrosion-resistant seat (e.g.
bronze or stainless steel), into which a continuous rubber-ring seal is
fitted. Others include flexible metal-seal rings (for high-temperature
services) (Figure 6).
Detail design may provide automatic adjustment to any eccentric
motion of the disc and/or automatic compensation for seal wear. Drop-
tight closure of any butterfly valve is normal and can be retained for a
considerable time before seal replacement is necessary.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Metal seats in butterfly valves have particular advantages and
should incorporate the following:
• good tightness-to ANSI B 16.104 Class V and higher
• no jamming
• smooth control-low- and constant-friction load in the control position
• low torque
• high cycle service
• wide temperature range
• good corrosion resistance
• low cavity relief
The metal-to-metal seated valve shown in Figure 7 is designed
for bi-directional zero-leakage service. A double-offset (eccentric)
shaft together with an offset conical seat achieves the 'camming'
action of the disc into the seat. This keeps the sealing ring clear of
the seat except in the final shut-off position and provides for non-
rubbing rotation.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
The cone angle allows the seal ring to touch the seat with a contact
angle that is uniform and allows a slight amount of wedging.
This type of valve is particularly suited for process and steam duties
from cryogenic to high-temperature applications.
Another novel butterfly valve is shown in Figure 8. This valve is
designed specifically for dry solids processing. The valve has an
inflatable seat that has only `casual' contact with the valve disc
during opening and closing. In operation, air and electric controls
operate the valve. They automatically inflate and deflate the seat,
allowing a single control input to operate the valve. When supplied with
air, the control assembly moves the disc to the closed position and then
automatically inflates the seat. When the control signal is received, the
seat is instantly deflated and the valve disc moves to the open position.
When the control signal is dropped, the assembly returns the disc to the
closed position and automatically inflates the seat (Figure 9).
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Actuation
All types of control mechanisms can be used to operate butterfly valves
manual by lever or handwheel with reduction gear, electrical by actuator
or reduction gear, hydraulic actuator or pneumatic actuator. Choice
largely depends on the size of the valve and the specific application.
Special control systems can also be used for automatic closing, e.g. see
Table 1.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Fieldbus control
Butterfly valves have now become a viable alternative to
conventional control valves due to development in sophisticated
controls instrumentation and communications technology.
A major milestone in flow control is the introduction of fieldbus
control systems.
Fieldbus systems take advantage of developments in low-cost
microchip technology, allowing intelligence to be built into each device
in the loop. Each device communicates via a protocol developed for
rapid control information, with the ability to adjust a valve's position
and enable the speed of the valve stroke to be altered using
programmable, menu-driven communications devices. The diagnostic
role of a fieldbus system means it can give advance warning of potential
problem areas so that corrective action can be taken. This
instrumentation technology has resulted in a new breed of valve
controls instrumentation.
4. Butterfly Valves
Inherent flow characteristic
The inherent flow characteristic of a valve has been defined so as to
keep the differential pressure across the valve constant. When the
differential pressure across the valve is constant, the flow rate (q)
through the valve is proportional to the valve flow coefficient (Cv).
Because the valve flow coefficient (Cv,) reflects the effective flow cross-
section of the valve, the valve inherent flow characteristic shows how
the effective flow cross-section changes as a function of the relative
travel (h).
Figure 10 shows the most common valve inherent flow characteristics
as a function of the relative flow coefficient (N) and the relative travel
(h).
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Valve sizing
The size of butterfly valves to be used for control purposes should not
be dictated by the nominal diameter of the pipe, but should be calculated
on the basis of the operating characteristics in order to achieve the
correct control characteristics.
To determine the size of a control valve, the opening angle
characteristics need to be considered. Typically, some butterfly valves
are designed with approximately equal percentage characteristics over an
opening of 60°.
The example in Figure 11 shows how to calculate the Kv ((low
coefficient) from liquids and gases.
Pressure/temperature ratings
The maximum working capability of a valve is either the body rating or
the seat shut-off capability, whichever is the lower. In Figure 12 the seat
ratings shown are based on data from API 609 and the body ratings
shown are from ANSI B16.5/BS 1560 part 2.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Butterfly check valves
Butterfly check valves differ from conventional butterfly valves in
employing a hinged instead of a pivoted disc, with a sealing ring around
the edge of the disc (Figure 13). With forward flow, the two halves of the
disc are swung together to trail downstream. With reverse flow, the two
halves open to approximately 45° each, sealing the bore.
With this mode of working, a butterfly check valve is, in fact, another
form of flap valve. It has the advantage of rapid action with a resilient
seal.
Butterfly check valves (Figure 14) require only a short length of body
which can virtually be a length of standard pipe flanged at both ends (or
threaded or plain ends in smaller sizes). It is also produced in wafer form
for clamping between two pipe flanges. In this case the body length only
needs to be sufficient to accommodate the hinge post and the two valve
plates in their closed position.
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
Advantages of butterfly valves
• Butterfly valves are compact, require less space, less weight,
less raw material and are generally less costly than other valve types.
• Butterfly valves are quarter-turn valves, easy to operate by
lever, gearbox or actuator. They have excellent gland integrity.
• Butterfly valves have few parts and are generally easy to maintain.
• Butterfly valves are suitable for control purposes with linear
flow characteristics between 30° and 70° of opening.
• Butterfly valves offer excellent rangeability from 30:1 to 100:1.
Typical major areas of application for butterfly valves include:
liquids, gases, steam, cryogenics, pulpstocks both on control and shut-
off services in chemical processing, waterworks duties, oil and gas
processing, pulp and paper manufacture, the power industry,
refineries and food and beverage processing.
Properly selected and integrated with the latest controls and
communications technology, butterfly valves can provide an economical,
long-term solution to flow control in large process plants.
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
The rotary valve is an obvious configuration, although not widely used. It
can be classified as a type of spool valve where the ports run axially instead of
circumferentially (Figure 1). Sealing in the closed position, valves are a close
fit over a restricted area only. Also friction can be high. In these
respects, it is inferior to a conventional spool valve or even a plug valve.
A somewhat better configuration is to employ a `solid spool' with
drilled through ports (Figure 2); or the rotary plate valve (see the chapter on
Spool Valves).
Geometric design is simplified to a degree with these latter types of valves,
and both can readily be produced with overlap or underlap as required, e.g. by
enlarging the circumferential length of the rotation or stationary port,
respectively. This type of valve is known as a disc valve or rotary disc valve.
A third basic configuration is shown in Figure 3, where a spindle or shaft
rotates in a stationary housing. The shaft is drilled axially and also vertically at
the blind end to form a port whose position matches the inlet port in the
stationary member. Again, the port opening(s) can be modified in length
to provide overlap or underlap as required.
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
A feature of both rotary valve types shown in Figures 2 and 3 is that
they are capable of providing exact timing of port opening with
continuous rotation of the rotary element.
The design of rotary valve shown in Figure 4 overcomes the
problem of friction and leakage by using shear seal rings in each port
and a thrust bearing between rotor and housing. The shear seal rings are
grooved to retain O-ring seals and are spring-loaded onto the smooth
rotor face by individual disc springs. The flow passages through the
valve are made as clear as possible to reduce the pressure drop through
the valve.
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
Rotor valves
This type of valve differs from the typical rotary valve in that the valve
design allows for transitional flow to occur when changing valve
positions. Transitional flow eliminates dead-heading problems
associated with positive displacement pumps.
Typically the rotor valve (Figure 5) consists of four flow types with
many flow-pattern combinations and `piggable' versions. The stem and
rotor are usually of a one-piece construction that can eliminate the source
of wear and repair common to the typical ball valve design. Full-port
diameter reduces the pressure drop across the valve, thereby
increasing the flow. An independent leaf seal design eliminates the
large cavities common to the ball valve and also the need for cavity
fillers, which still create stagnant seams for product to enter.
Rotor valves of this type are favoured by a number of industries
including: food and beverage, pharmaceutical, chemical,
petrochemical, refining, paper and paint and particularly where
quick-couple fittings for sanitary systems are preferred.
Typical flow-pattern combinations are shown in Figure 6.
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
De-mountable rotary valves (Figure 7) are mainly used for sanitary
duties in dairy, food, pharmaceutical and chemical applications with
powder or granular product. This type of valve is usually produced
in 316 stainless steel with the rotor end-plate and shaft seals easily
disassembled without tools and the unit capable of being cleaned in place
(CIP). Capacities up to 1500 cubic ft/hr in either drop-through or
convey-through configurations are common.
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
5. Rotary Disc/Rotor Valves
6. Globe Valves
Over the last 60 years, globe valves have been re-appraised in
the light of new materials available for use. They are popular as
industrial valves because they have fine adjustment and permit
unobstructed opening through pipelines.
The globe valve is characterised by a baffle or partition
separating the two halves of the body, with an interconnecting part
at the centre opened and closed by a screw-down/screw-up disc or
plug mounted at right angles to the body (Figure 1). The name
derives from the fact that original body shapes were spherical, the
more usual modern form being semi-spherical or even substantially
parallel-sided.
The globe valve offers good regulation characteristics but high
resistance because of the tortuous flow path. This can be reduced to some
extent by making the throat area equivalent to that of the pipe (calling for
a more bulbous body), rounding the partition to smooth flow or
inclining it to the flow (Figure 2). Reduction of head loss by such
treatment is generally minimal and so right angled partitions are
commonly used.
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
Globe valves are produced with a variety of discs or plugs and
seals. Discs provide line contact with the seat which can be broken by
solid deposits forming on the seat. They are thus mainly suited only for
clean fluids. Disc valves, too, are not as effective as plugs for throttling
duties and so are normally used only on shutoff valves. Another
limitation of the disc is that it does not provide positive shut-off for
air and gases, unless made of a resilient material.
Plugs are used in a variety of configurations, ranging from
needle shapes to semi-discs. The plug contour also governs the
throttling characteristics, e.g. equal-percentage plugs (percentage flow
proportional to valve lift), etc.
Needle plugs provide the finest flow control. Globe valves fitted with
this latter type of plug are normally referred to as needle valves.
Needle valves are normally made only in small sizes.
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
Seats
Globe valve seats may be cast integral with the body or take the
form of screwed-in, pressed-in, or spot-welded rings. A variety of
materials may be used for seats, depending on the application,
including coated seat rings with plastic inserts. Normally only screwed-
in seat rings are replaceable.
6. Globe Valves
Stems
Possible stem assemblies include inside screw and outside screw
(both rising stem) and sliding stem. Inside stem rising screw is
usual. A stem seal (stem gland) is necessary to eliminate leakage. This
is normally a gland-type packing or gland rings. A diaphragm bonnet seal
or bellows bonnet seal may also be used on globe valves, the former
isolating the working parts of the valve from the fluid as well as
preventing leakage to the atmosphere. Metallic bellows seals are often
used on valves intended for high-vacuum duties.
The valve shown in Figure 3 is manufactured from malleable
iron. This valve is widely used on standard pipelines for steam, oil and
water.
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
Malleable iron provides a high yield point, a more important
property than tensile strength for valve materials. It is also stable
against temperature change. Low-pressure valves of this type generally
have PTFE seats. Valves for use at higher pressures have the valve disc
and body seat ring made from hard-faced stainless steel. The hard
face is an alloy containing cobalt, chromium and tungsten. Valves of
this type can also be fitted with replaceable PTFE discs when used with
liquefied petroleum gases. The gland packings are usually of a
synthetic rubber of butadiene-acryl-nitrile polymer V packing design
to provide for good oil and wear resistance. Over time, the V packing
will harden; tell-tale signs are: a friction sound when the valve is opened
and closed; the opening and closing operation becomes difficult to
operate; and the gland actually leaking. The packing must then be
replaced.
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
An example of a standard globe valve for use in hot- and warm-water
heating and boiler installations is shown in Figure 4. This particular
valve has a metallic seat. The temperature range is from -10°C up to
+350°C, with pressures up top = 25 bar.
The valve illustrated in Figure 5 is fitted with a soft seat for
high-temperature operation from -10°C to +200°C. Typical
applications included hot-water heating systems, district heating
plants and low-pressure steam plants. The valve has a short face-to-
face length which makes it particularly compact. Globe valves are a
traditional standard solution for many control applications because of
the ability to modify the trim design for different throttling purposes.
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
6. Globe Valves
Oblique valves
The oblique valve or Y-valve is a hybrid globe valve
characterised by the stem being angled (Figure 6). As a
consequence the flow path is less tortuous, with reduced pressure
drop compared with a conventional globe valve. It retains the same good
throttling characteristics as a globe valve and can be fitted with similar
types of plugs.
Construction is basically the same as globe valves with the option of
integral or fitted seat rings, stem options and stem seal gland treatment.
6. Globe Valves
7. Gate Valves
The main feature that distinguishes a gate valve is the flat face or
vertical disc or wedge that slides in a track or seat which can be
lifted in a direction at right angles to the valve until clear of the flow
path. Generally gate valves are used for on-off non throttling service,
i.e. they are intended to be either fully open, when they offer little
resistance to flow, or fully closed. For this reason, they are the principal
valves used in bulk pumping practice.
Large gate valves tend to be power operated. Throughout the
water industry, for example, automation with actuated valves has been
introduced in response to the requirement for lower manning levels.
Gate valves are divided into a number of classes, depending on the
design of the `gate' and its seating faces.
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
Wedge-gate valves
The gate is wedge-shaped and seals on corresponding faces in the faces
of the valve body. Wedges and seats can be made of, or coated
with, resistant material or faced with plastic such as PTFE. The plastic is
often contained in a groove to prevent it spreading. Figure 1 shows a
wedge-gate valve with external screw, and Figure 2 one with internal
screw.
Flexible-wedge valves and split-wedge valves are similar to the
aforementioned, but with provision for slight seat misalignment.
Wedge-gate valves can be further described as inside-screw or
outside-screw patterns (see Figure 3). They are widely used for oil, gas
and air services, and also for handling slurries, etc.
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
Double-disc valves
In these valves the gate is in the form of two discs which are forced apart
against parallel seats by a spring. This provides tight sealing without relying on
fluid pressure, making this type of valve particularly suitable for steam
duties as well as handling gases and light oils.
Parallel-slide valves
In 1886, Joseph Hopkinson introduced the parallel-slide valve where sealing
of the valve relies on the upstream pressure acting on a flat parallel gate valve.
The system is still popular today and the simplest (and probably most
effective) layout employs two discs as valve members initially separated
by a spring (see Figure 4). The function of the spring is to prevent the
discs from rattling and to encourage a wiping action on the downstream disc
when under pressure and on both discs when there is virtually no pressure in the
line.
This is to avoid-as far as is possible-grit or scale becoming trapped between
the vulnerable seating faces which might impair their sealing properties.
Parallel-slide valves are used extensively in the pulp and paper industry.
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
Sluice valves
This is a name applied to solid-wedge valves for waterworks.
Bellows seal-gate valves
Environmental protection is a major concern and the bellows seal
valve is designed to minimise exposure to dangerous or harmful
substances through valve-stem leakage. The bellows is a metallic
device capable of sealing between the valve stem and the bonnet to
prevent escape of the system fluid to the atmosphere. The bellows take
the form of convolutions that can move linearly. A hermetic seal is
achieved by welding the bellows to the valve stem at one end and to the
bonnet at the other end (Figure 5). The structural shape of the bellows
provides resistance to high pressure, even with thin wall thicknesses
(Figure 6).
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
In operation, the bellows eliminates a leak path to atmosphere. The
stem/packing area is sealed from the medium being processed and the
bellows becomes the primary seal since the bellows assembly is welded
to the stem and to the bonnet as shown in Figure 7.
Replaceable bellows are gaining popularity with valve users in
process plants.
In replaceable bellows valves, the bellows is not welded to the
bonnet; instead, it is welded to a transition piece that is clamped between
the body with standard gaskets to seal the joint. The lower end of the
bellows assembly is welded to the disc which is attached to the stem by a
threaded connection. The gasket on the media side is generally a spiral-
wound gasket. The gasket at the top of the bellows assembly only comes
into operation if the bellows fails.
Where maintenance is difficult, the welded bonnet valve may be the
better choice. Gate valves are used mainly in general industry, power
stations, process engineering, pulp and paper and marine engineering for
water, steam, gas, oil and non-aggressive media.
7. Gate Valves
7. Gate Valves
Actuation
Manual actuation of gate valves is invariably by screw and
handwheel. The screw mechanism may be exposed or protected and the
screw `rising' or 'non-rising'. A variety of materials for the working parts
is offered by some makers.
Power actuators are very often fitted, especially where valves are
difficult to access and are operated frequently. Automation and semi-
automation control schemes also make extensive use of actuators. See
also the chapter on Slide Valves.
8. Needle Valves
Small sizes of globe valves fitted with a finely tapered plug are known
as needle valves. This description also applies to any type of valve
incorporating a tapered needle having axial movement relative to the
axis of a concentric orifice and thus controlling the effective opening of
the orifice.
Three basic configurations are shown in Figure 1: (A) is a simple
screwdown valve; (B) is an oblique version, offering a more direct flow
path; (C) is another form where the controlled outlet flow is at right
angles to the main now (and may be distributed through one or more
passages). In these basic versions a threaded needle is shown, the
thread itself acting as a seal to eliminate leakage past the needle.
This is normally quite satisfactory in very small sizes of needle,
although a more leak-tight arrangement is to mount the needle in an
externally threaded end piece [Figure 1 (D)]. This end piece can also act
as a grip for adjustment of the needle. Seating in this case can be further
improved if necessary by incorporating an internal seal, such as an
0-ring. The other common form of needle valve is the float-controlled,
carburettor-type valve.
8. Needle Valves
8. Needle Valves
8. Needle Valves
8. Needle Valves
9. Pinch Valves
The 'working' element of a pinch valve, also known as a clamp valve, is an
elastomeric tube or sleeve which can be squeezed at its mid-section by some
mechanical system until ultimately the tube walls are pinched or clamped
together producing full closure of the flow path.
In its simplest form it can consist merely of a length of elastomeric tube fitted
with a pinch bar mechanism incorporating a closure stop to prevent over-
pinching of the tube. More usually the moulded rubber tube is housed in a
metal body which also incorporates the pinching mechanism (Figure 1). This
can be a simple screw-operated mechanism, where the pinch is applied only to
one side of the tube, or a differential screw controlling two pinching
mechanisms working in vertical opposition. The latter produces lower-
stress working of the tube.
Other types of pinch valves dispose with mechanical mechanisms
entirely, the tube being squeezed shut by air or hydraulic pressure injected
directly into the body of the valve (Figure 2). With a regulated fluid pressure
the valve may be used for throttling as well as shut-off (full closure) (Figure
3). The particular advantage of the fluid-operated pinch valve is that it will still
close tight over entrapped solids (making it particularly suitable for
handling products with solids in suspension). Also, because the tube is flexed
under uniformly distributed pressure, its life should be much longer than that of
a similar tube working with a mechanical pinching system.
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
In common with the diaphragm valve, the operating mechanism
is not in contact with the working fluid at any time, and nor is the body.
In this respect, pinch valves have the advantage over diaphragm valves,
unless the latter are rubber-lined or otherwise surface-protected. This
exclusion of the working fluid from all parts excepting the sleeve itself
makes it ideal for the handling of aggressive fluids and those which
readily attack metal; and its straight-through characteristics mean it is
suitable for the handling of slurries, pastes and semi-fluids generally,
even those containing sizeable solid lumps in suspension.
Pinch valves with mechanical pinching mechanisms are normally
operated by a handwheel and screw mechanism, but may equally
well be driven by a powered actuator in larger sizes. Bodies are
normally split horizontally to facilitate changing the tube when
necessary without removing the complete valve from the pipeline.
9. Pinch Valves
Flow pattern
The flow pattern of a pinch valve is streamline and laminar. The non
turbulent flow pattern even in the wide-open position means that wear on
the valve sleeve is minimised.
The linear characteristics of some control pinch valves result in flow rates
which are directly proportional to the amount of sleeve travel throughout the
stroke of the valve while under constant-pressure and pressure-drop conditions.
Typical valve sleeves are shown in Figure 4. These include standard, double
wall for very abrasive conditions, cone sleeve for throttling control and
variable orifice sleeve for improved flow characteristics where a high
pressure drop is required.
Another form of pinch valve is shown in Figure 5. In addition to a resilient
sleeve this also incorporates a streamlined core on to which the sleeve closes to
seal. This valve can be operated in a variety of modes. In mode 1, the valve
remains closed when no pressure is present, due to the resilience of the sleeve
(Figure 6). In the presence of pressure in the pipeline, the valve opens
and remains open (Figure 7). It closes again in the absence of flow pressure.
Line pressure of about 1 bar (14 lbf/in2) is sufficient to hold the valve in the
fully open position.
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
In mode 2, inlet pressure is tapped and fed to the control space between
the sleeve and body, closing the valve. The valve opens when the
operating pressure is relieved from the control space (Figure 8). At
extremely low line pressures, circa 0.5 bar (7 lbf/in2), the valve
remains closed and drop-tight, even when operating pressure is relieved
from the control space.
In mode 3, the operating principle is the same, except that the control
space is pressurised from an independent source, e.g. compressed air
or a hydraulic supply.
In mode 4. the flow is tapped to feed the control space which is only
partially filled and then isolated, holding the sleeve in a partially closed
position (Figure 9). In this mode the valve operates as a throttling valve
or pressure-regulation valve. Various low-hardness, high-tensile
elastomeric compounds are used for the tubes, choice being made
on chemical resistance and/or abrasion resistance required and service
temperature. Typical materials used are:
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
Fluid performance
A pinch valve presents full-bore flow in the open position, with a
straight, uninterrupted flow passage. Pressure drop or head loss under
such conditions is thus minimal, related only to flow velocity and
tube length, for a given fluid.
There is no slamming when the valve closes against back pressure and
the elastic nature of the tube tends to eliminate hammer (although this
feature is absent in a hydraulically-operated pinch valve).
Vacuum services
Pinch valves tend to have limited suitability for vacuum services
because of the tendency for the tube to collapse inwards. This is
particularly true in the case of pinch valves with simple exposed tubes.
Where the tube is enclosed in a body it is possible to adapt the valve for
vacuum duties by applying a vacuum within the casing to balance the
internal (vacuum) pressure.
9. Pinch Valves
Sizes and ratings
Sizes commonly available range up to 300 mm (12 in), with standard
bodies suitable for pressures up to 14 bar (200 lbf/in2), or steel or
stainless-steel bodies for pressures up to 28 bar (400 lbf/in2). Larger
sizes are also available, those over 600 mm (24 in) diameter usually
being individually made with fabricated steel bodies.
Clamp valves
This type of pinch valve (Figure 10) consists of a flexible tube and
clamp. The flexible tube has a heat-shrunk reinforcing jacket with
both made from virgin TFE fluorocarbon resin. The clamping
mechanism consists of a compressor which travels down a stem with
rotation of a handwheel or power operator, and a yoke which travels up
the stem at the same time.
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
Radius clamps are connected to the yoke and to the compressor by
means of links and pins. Working together, they provide a `scissor-
jack' action which pushes the tube element inward during the opening
cycle and pulls it outward during closing. The actions of the valve
mechanism are shown in Figures 11 and 12.
Pinch valves are ideal for use in many industrial applications including:
• Chemical plants-where there are corrosive chemicals and for
pump isolation.
• Power industry-FGD systems, ash handling and wet lime scrubbers.
• Mining industry-centrifuge control, solids separation, tailings
systems, coal washing.
• Waste water treatment-flow equalisation, polymer feed systems,
sludge control, grit systems, carbon slurry and raw sewage.
9. Pinch Valves
9. Pinch Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
The distinguishing feature of a diaphragm valve is the closure
device. This is usually an elastomeric diaphragm or tube which acts as a
flexible seal when compressed against a ridge in the valve body. The
diaphragm valve handles corrosive and erosive materials.
Diaphragm valves fall into two main types-weir valves and
straight through valves. In the former geometry (Figure 1). the
body has a dividing weir, above which is mounted an elastomeric
diaphragm. In the closed position the diaphragm sits on the weir. In
the open position, it is fitted to provide a streamlined flow through
the valve body. The amount of lifting is variable, so the valve can act
both as a flow controller or a stop valve.
The straight-through diaphragm valve (Figure 2) may have a parallel,
top-tapered or venturi-pattern body with closure provided by a
wedge-shaped projection of the diaphragm. Because of the full-bore
opening, it offers minimum resistance to flow in the open position, can
pass suspended solids, and is capable of being rodded through for
clearing any blockage.
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
Because the diaphragm isolates the moving parts, these valves are
particularly suitable for handling aggressive fluids, as well as for 'clean
fluid‘applications, the type of elastomer being chosen accordingly. The
body itself can also be lined for corrosive duties.
Particular advantages of the diaphragm valve are the glandless
construction and absence of seating problems. Its main limitation is
that the maximum service temperature and pressure are limited by
the temperature/pressure rating of the elastomeric material.
Typical body materials are cast iron, malleable iron, bronze, gun-
metal and stainless steel. Lined diaphragm valves normally have
cast-iron bodies lined with rubber, neoprene, polypropylene, PTFE
or glass. Typical diaphragm materials and their main uses are
summarised in Table 1. Reinforced diaphragm materials may be used for
more arduous duties and are virtually standard for vacuum services.
Typical flow coefficients for weir-type and straight-through
diaphragm valves are given in Tables 2A and 2B.
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
Operation
Of the standard forms of manual operation available, the handwheel
is preferred for most purposes. The design of handwheel and operating
mechanism (spindle, compressor, bush or nut) varies according to
the size and type of valve. Various-shaped handwheels are also
available. This facility, for instance, greatly assists the operator in
identification in dark conditions or where the handwheel becomes
slippery.
Various bonnets are applicable to handwheel-operated valves.
Extended spindle valves are readily available but existing valves can be
simply converted by use of adaptor and extension. Other variants of
bonnet assembly can be substituted for the handwheel-operated design.
10. Diaphragm Valves
Normal bonnet assembly material is cast iron but alternative
materials are offered by most manufacturers, e.g.:
(i) All iron and steel construction (for handling acetylene, ammonia
and other similar fluids).
(ii) All stainless steel (where there is severe atmospheric-
corrosion conditions).
(iii) Gun-metal (for medical oxygen, turbine oils and certain water
services).
(iv) Cast steel with rising spindle fitting (mainly used in oil refineries).
(v) Silicon aluminium (for lightness and low temperature).
(vi) A variety of plastic materials (for general corrosion resistance).
(vii) Epoxy-coated cast iron (for corrosion resistance, attractive
appearance).
10. Diaphragm Valves
For quick closure and/or opening, lever-action valves can be
used. A quarter-turn movement is preferred when the liner can also act
as a valve position indicator, e.g. parallel with the pipeline in the fully
open position and at right angles to the pipeline in the fully closed
position.
Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for rapid closure/opening
because the cushioning action of the flexible diaphragm minimizes
the shock throughout the pipeline, compared with equally rapid but less
resilient types of valve movement.
10. Diaphragm Valves
Double-diaphragm valves
A double-diaphragm valve is a basically simple design consisting
of two flexing diaphragms on an axial stem. There is no metal-to-metal
contact, 0-rings or sliding seals, making lubrication unnecessary, as
shown in Figure 3. The valve requires no special filtration and is tolerant
to dirt-laden media as well as scrubbed instrument air.
Designed for compressed air and inert gases, the self-purging
non-lubricated design is also suitable for vacuum applications. A
cartridge-insert version is manufactured for direct integration into
finished products. Typical areas of application include food
processing and medical equipment. In fact, a doublediaphragm air
valve has performed over two billion cumulative cycles, an
equivalent of 50 years of human life, in various heart systems. The
valves are located in the mechanical control system, which is attached
to the patient by plastic tubes, and control the flow of compressed
air through the tubes to the artificial heart, causing it to pump.
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
Plastic diaphragm valves (Figure 3) are becoming increasingly popular.
Manufactured from PVC-U, PVC-C, ABS, PP and PVDF plastics, the
main advantages are lightweight and compact construction, corrosion
resistance and a long maintenance-free working life.
Typical pressure-temperature charts are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Miniature air-operated diaphragm valves are designed for pressure applications
for highly corrosive or ultra-pure liquids, when space is critical. This type
of valve has numerous applications in the electronics/semiconductor
industry for use with concentrated etchants and ultra-pure water.
Generally, the valves open with air pressure and close with a return
spring. Diaphragm valves play a significant role in air-pulse jet-dust
control equipment and valve performance has a great influence on the
cleaning efficiency of the generated air pulse.
Air-pulse diaphragm valves need to open and close very rapidly at high
flows. Fluttering of the diaphragm during opening and closing increases
air consumption and will affect valve performance. The opening time of the
pulse valve must be as short as possible, i.e. between 8 and 14 ms to achieve
best performance. Long closing times increase air consumption.
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
Iris-type diaphragm valves
The diaphragm valve shown in Figure 6 is designed specifically to
control the flow of dry bulk solids and is used for food, chemical
pharmaceutical and general processes. Essentially the valve consists of
a tube of flexible material, fixed rigidly at each end. This tube is held
in a mechanism which rotates one end through 180° relative to the other.
When twisted in this way, the tube closes completely, creating a
diaphragm visually resembling the iris of a camera.
Iris-type diaphragm valves have a variable area concentric orifice
so that the flow can be accurately controlled. They can open or close
irrespective of size to the smallest of orifice sizes, regulating the flow of
even the finest of powders. Power-operated models can open or close to
pre-set "dribble-feed" positions.
10. Diaphragm Valves
10. Diaphragm Valves
Central to the performance of the iris-type diaphragm valve is the
correct selection of diaphragms.
The diaphragms are usually made from either (i) elastomers-
natural and synthetic, (ii) fabrics and (iii) coated fabrics (Figure 7).
Typical applications include discharge valve to cake-mix mixer,
discharge valve for rail tankers carrying bulk sugar, packing herbs
and spices, controlling the flow of finished tablets and capsules,
general purpose flow-control valves for silos and hoppers, filling
fertilizers into 1 tonne bags, gland around telephone cable to remove
excess grease, valve on salt silo for motorway gritting, weighing out
of abrasive ingredients, and controlling the flow of pigments.
10. Diaphragm Valves
11. Slide Valves
Slide valves are one of the many variations of the gate-type valve and
were originally designed for use in the pulp and paper industry to
overcome the problems in handling wet and dry fluidized solids in
pipelines.
The slide valve, or knife or plate valve as it is sometimes called, in its
original form was a simple rattle-fit plate in a fabricated body. Opening
or closing was achieved by pushing or pulling the plate to give a crude
shut-off. Although design improvements have been made, this simple
form of valve is still commonly used as a diverter or hopper outlet valve
on dry powders or solids where a pressure seal is not required. In such
applications the body of the valve will probably be of square or
rectangular bore to suit the hopper outlet or duct on which it is fitted.
11. Slide Valves
The logical advancement from this design was the fitting of resilient seals and
an operating screw and handwheel to open and close the slide. With the
improvement in sealing that this gives, the slide valve is suitable for a much
wider range of services and can handle solids suspended in liquids or gases.
Although they are simple valves, there are a variety of designs on the market
all sharing, to a greater or lesser degree, the following advantages:
(a) short overall length
(b) no wedging action
(c) thin closing member to cut through solids in the line
(d) substantially full-round bore
(e) lightweight
(f) easy to power-operate
(g) stem/slide connection not in contact with line fluid
(h) slide exposed for visual inspection when valve is open
(i) good regulating characteristics when fitted with specially-shaped slide
and/or body bore
11. Slide Valves
The resilient seals, which can be fitted in the body or on the slide
depending on individual design, are available in various materials to suit
the fluid being handled. For most applications they will be in rubber, e.g.
Nitrile or Viton. but for higher temperatures or in the food and chemical
industries it may be necessary to specify PTFE or other special
elastomers. There are many individual designs of slide valve on the
market. In some ways, this is advantageous as it gives the valve user
more scope for finding a valve specifically designed to overcome a
unique problem. Generally speaking, slide valves are used on services
such as:
(i) viscous media
(ii) dry powder
(iii) dry solids of small and large particle size
(iv) slurries and sludges
11. Slide Valves
These applications are commonly found in the waterworks,
sewage, mining, chemical. power generation, food, cement, brewing and
other process industries as well as the pulp and paper industry for
which the valve was originally designed. But this does not necessarily
mean that slide valves are only used on difficult applications. They are
equally successful when put on less arduous duties where the
benefits of leak-tightness, space-saving, price, etc., need to be
considered.
Figure 1 shows a typical design of slide valve. It will be noted that the
bore is clear of obstructions and that there are no pockets in which solids
can collect, in addition to which the seal is housed in the body of the
valve and shrouded by the body to avoid damage from solids in the line.
In this design the seal seats on the edges of the slide, which means that
the valve will seal equally well with flow in either direction and the slide
has a chamfered leading edge which enables it to slice through any
obstruction and seat effectively against the body seal (Figure 2). These
features ensure bubble-tight shut-off against pressure or vacuum.
11. Slide Valves
11. Slide Valves
11. Slide Valves
Unlike conventional gate valves, the slide passes through the body
and a standard gland packing cannot therefore be used. In the design
shown here, profiled transverse seals are employed. These comprise
two lengths of V-section rubber with the open sides of the V facing each
other. During assembly, the diamond-shaped opening is filled with an
oiled-fibre packing which is forced in and pushes the lips of the
transverse seals into contact with the body and the slide. In this way,
leakage to atmosphere is prevented. Also, by removing the screws on
the sides of the body, more packing can be inserted at a later date to
maintain a tight seal even if the valve is on-stream and under pressure or
vacuum. An optional extra on this design of valve is a set of scraper
blades set below the transverse seals. During the opening phase, this
enables the slide faces to be scraped clean over their whole width before
they are drawn through the transverse seals, and damage to the seals
is thereby prevented. This is particularly important when handling
sugar, sticky media such as honey, chocolate compound, glues,
tenacious powders, etc.
11. Slide Valves
A venturi parallel-slide valve is shown in sectioned form in Figure 3. This
valve incorporates a pressure-sealed bonnet design and is used as a
general purpose stop valve for main steam and feedwater isolation on power
station boiler plant. The parallel-slide action is shown in Figure 4.
A cutaway view of the internal cross-section of the valve is shown in
Figure 5.
When power operation is required, slide valves are particularly easy to
operate pneumatically as the pneumatic cylinder can be mounted directly on the
valve pillars and the end of the piston rod connected direct to the valve slide.
Electric actuation is also widely used on slide valves and, to a lesser extent,
hydraulic actuation. In addition, a very useful alternative to handwheel
operation is the lever-operated slide valve which gives a very quick
open/close operation.
When powders and granular materials are stored in silos or conveyed
by belt and screw conveyors, actuated rectangular valves are often required, as
shown in Figure 6. This is particularly true for pulverised fuels, ash and grain,
as well as brewing, food processing and dust control.
See also the chapter on Gate Valves.
11. Slide Valves
11. Slide Valves
11. Slide Valves
11. Slide Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
The general classification "screw-down valve" is taken to refer to all
types of valves sealing by a disc or plug, etc., and in which the sealing element
is lifted from and lowered on to the valve seat by rotation of a threaded stem,
the axis of which is perpendicular to the valve seat. Mainly this embraces
various types of stop valves, e.g. globe valves, oblique or Y-valves, gate
valves, lift-type plug valves and angle valves. Much of this has been covered
in other chapters. It also includes certain types of throttling valves, i.e. needle
valves in particular.
Screw-down valves are also categorised as:
(i) Inside screw, where the threaded portion of the stem is fully enclosed
within the bonnet.
(ii) Outside screw, where the threaded portion of the stem is exterior to the
bonnet and (usually) carried in a yoke (see Figure 1).
A further distinction is made between:
(a) Rising-stem valves, where the stem moves in or out of the bonnet as the
stem is rotated by a handwheel, lever or actuator.
(b) Non-rising stem valves, where there is no displacement of the stem along
its axis when rotated.
Both inside-screw and outside-screw valves can be of rising-stem or
non rising-stem type.
12. Screw-down Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
Principal differences between these categories are:
(i) Inside-screw valves have the threaded length of the stem protected from
dirt, etc. However, the stem is fully exposed to the fluid being handled. Also it
is more difficult to provide lubrication for the thread where the fluid handled is
not itself a lubricant.
(ii) Outside-screw valves have the threaded length fully exposed to the
surroundings. hence they can readily collect dirt and/or be subject to
corrosion. Lubrication is easier because the threaded length is fully accessible,
but again lubricant will promote collection of dirt on the threads. The
threaded length of the stem is isolated from the fluid being handled by the stem
glands, hence this type is more suitable for handling corrosive media, slurries,
etc.
(a) Rising-stem valves provide a visual indication of the position of the
valve disc or gate and thus the degree of valve opening. On the other hand,
adequate clearance is needed above the valve to accommodate the rising-
stem movement.
(b) Non-rising-stem valves have the advantage that they can be installed in
positions where headroom is limited. Stem wear is also minimised,
although there may be increased wear on the threaded length which lifts
and lowers the valve disc or gate.
For corrosive duties, stem protection may be provided by a bellows seal
applied either to an inside screw (usually) or an outside screw.
12. Screw-down Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
12. Screw-down Valves
13. Spool Valves
Spool valves embody two basic elements: a cylindrical barrel in which
slides a plunger or spool. Port blocking is provided by glands or full diameter
sections on the spool, with intervening waist sections which provide port
interconnection through the barrel. This makes it easy to provide multi-way
and multi-position switching.
Sliding-spool valves are generally used in hydraulic and pneumatic
fluid power systems for directional and flow-control purposes. There must
be an annular clearance between the spool and the body, so there is always
some leakage flow across the spool and this must be taken into consideration.
Spool valves are relatively simple and economic to manufacture, although
for adequate sealing a fine surface finish is required on both the spool and the
barrel bore, with close tolerances to ensure practical minimum clearances.
Glandless spool valves thus normally require a lapped fit between spool and
body.
Pneumatic-spool valves with static seals offer simpler construction in
this respect and also rather more flexibility in design with seals
positioned between valve spaces so that a seal is situated between each
subsequent port and one seal on the outside of each of the two outer ports (see
Figure 1).
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
Spool valves operate on a sliding principle, so design normally
follows the basic requirement of all slide valves, i.e.:
(i) Pressure-balanced ports are required so that there is no net pressure
force acting axially on the spool.
(ii) The valve diameter should be a minimum consistent with suitable
stiffness.
(iii) The valve body or sleeve must have adequate rigidity.
(iv) Friction forces must be minimised and are largely controlled by
material selection for rubbing/sliding parts.
(v) Annular flow should be symmetrical in order to avoid radial
unbalanced forces which could increase friction.
(vi) Bernoulli forces, arising from changes in fluid momentum,
must be minimised.
Parameters (v) and (vi) are largely controlled by the detail design of the
spool.
13. Spool Valves
Spool-cushioning passages can be built into the valve as shown in
Figure 2. These equalise hydraulic forces on the ends of the spool and
cushion the spool shift, When the spool is shifted, the fluid displaced
from one end of the spool is transferred to the other end through the
passage which is designed to provide a cushioning effect and balance the
spool.
Forces may also be set up due to the changes in Fluid momentum
through the valve, generally described as Bernoulli forces. Thus,
typically, there may be a reduction in pressure on the valve spool at
the controlling edge, leading to a force being generated producing
unbalance or tending to close the valve. At the same time, if backlash
is also present in the system, Bernoulli forces may produce high
frequency `chatter' of the valve spool.
The hydraulic unbalancing effects of fluid momentum between
the cylinder and tank ports of a vale can be minimised by contouring the
spool shape as shown in Figure 3. Flow forces that are developed at the
conventional square land orifice (P to B) are partially compensated for
by the force-balancing contour on the outer spool lands (A to T).
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
Accurate sequencing of land opening and closing also provides
maximum axial stability, as shown in Figure 4. In this example, it is
important that flow path A to T is opened before the path P to B to
prevent pressure intensification which could upset axial balance and limit
valve function.
The spool can be moved manually, mechanically, by pilot pressure or
by an electric solenoid. Directional-control valves usually have finite
spool positioning to change the direction of flow from one port to
another. Proportional-control valves and servo-valves have infinitely
controllable spool positioning so that the flow rate of the fluid as
well as the direction of flow is controlled.
13. Spool Valves
Servo-valves
A servo-valve is capable of providing continuously variable flow
with changing input signal. The latter is normally an electric signal
to a torque motor, but feedback signals may also be derived
hydraulically or mechanically.
The simplest form of spool valve to control both the direction of
flow and flow rate is the three-way valve, but this will control the flow
to only one side of the load and a differential-area spool must be used. A
more common design, shown in Figure 5, is the four-way valve whose
symmetry results in improved linearity.
However, there are three critical axial dimensions of the spool and the
sleeve. To reduce some of the manufacturing difficulties, designers
have used the following different designs.
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
To reduce the number of critical axial dimensions of the four-
way valve, two separate three-way valves may be linked together,
as shown in Figure 6, and a means of zero adjustment can be
provided in the links. Although manufacturing problems associated
with porting are reduced, further difficulties are introduced in that two
parallel bores have to be made, and there may be additional backlash in
the linkage. Furthermore, its weight is usually more than that of the
simple four-way valve.
A design in which manufacturing difficulties associated with axial
tolerances are eliminated is the Elliott adjustable lap valve. This is a split,
three-way valve in which the two spools are mounted back-to-back and
are actuated by a central ram against restraint. The correct valve lap is
obtained after assembly by axial adjustment of the sleeves.
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
Sliding-plate valves
This design, shown in Figure 7. may be likened to an unwrapped
spool (that is, two-dimensional), or even to the original D-type
steam valve. It overcomes the difficulties associated with the
manufacture of the bores in spool valves, and hole-and-plug porting
techniques may be used. However, some manufacturers consider, the
difficulties associated with the production of flat and parallel plates
greater than those of making spools and sleeves. Various methods
are used to reduce friction forces; in some valves the sliding member is
suspended on spring plates to prevent metallic contact, and others
achieve hydrostatic pressure balance.
Rotary-plate valves
An alternative form of the plate valve is the rotary type shown
in Figure 8. Reaction-force compensation may be fairly easily
introduced by the use of deflector vanes which have the added
advantage of being adjustable.
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
Askania-type valves
The main advantages claimed for this type of valve, shown in Figure
9. are that it is less susceptible to contamination clogging, and the ease
of manufacture.
Although it has been fairly extensively used for control purposes in
low pressure applications, its design for medium- and high-pressure
systems presents a far more difficult problem because it is based on empirical
methods. A comment has been made that large reaction forces leading to
serious instability can occur, although the reasons for this are not known.
This valve, whose action depends upon the conversion of kinetic energy
of the jet into static pressure at the spool or ram, is referred to in the United
States as the `jet-pipe' design. However, it is probably preferable to avoid
this term to prevent confusion with other nozzle or jet designs used in two-
stage valves.
Two-stage valves
Two-stage valves were designed to overcome the practical limitations of
power and response of single-stage valves. Any of the previously mentioned
single-stage valves may be used as the first stage of a two-stage valve
with a spool or a plate as the second stage, of which the following are
examples.
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
Double-spool valves
In this valve, shown in Figure 10, the output from the first stage is used
to control the motion of the second stage spool and hence produces
delivery to the load.
Feedback from the output stage is necessary to avoid the integrating
effect of the two spools and is usually accomplished either electrically or
mechanically.
Nozzle flapper spool valves
The basic configuration of the single nozzle-flapper valve is shown in
Figure 11, where it can be seen that a movement of the flapper towards
the nozzle causes an increase in the pressure in the chamber
between the nozzle and the restrictor which causes the second stage
spool to move and thus deliver oil to the load. Movement of the
flapper in the other direction will reduce the chamber pressure,
causing the spool to move in the opposite direction and produce
reverse motion of the load. Thus the nozzle and flapper act as a
variable impedence, and a variable percentage of the supply
pressure acts on the right-hand end of the second stage spool.
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
Double nozzle-flapper spool valves
Representing a further development of the design previously
described, this valve is shown in Figure 12. The flapper and nozzle
control the pressure at both ends of the second stage spool and thus the
operation of the first stage may be likened to that of the four-way
valve. Although a fairly high quiescent flow is inevitable with this
design, the power loss is not significant for most applications.
The introduction of the nozzle-flapper device as the first stage,
with its low inertia and short stroke, was a major contribution in
the field of two-stage valve design. The design shown in Figure 13
is basically one of the earliest of a family of valves having nozzle-
flapper as the first stage.
For more detailed information on spool valves, refer to the
Pneumatic Handbook also published by Elsevier Science Limited.
13. Spool Valves
13. Spool Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
A solenoid valve is basically a valve operated by a built-in actuator in the
form of an electrical coil (or solenoid) and a plunger. The valve is thus opened
or closed by an electrical signal, being returned to its original position (usually
by a spring) when the signal is removed. Solenoid valves are produced in
two modes normally-open or normally-closed (referring to the state when the
solenoid is not energised).
The solenoid itself may be operated by DC or AC. A DC supply may be
provided by a battery, DC generator or through a rectifier. An AC supply is
normally taken from AC mains voltage, through a transformer if necessary.
Valve types and classifications
Basically there are nine different valve types to be distinguished, as shown in
Figure 1. Solenoid valves are also classified by type as follows:
2/2 (2-way valves)
Two-way valves have one inlet and one outlet pipe connection (see
Figure 2). They are of either
• normally-closed construction-valve is closed when de-energised and
open when energised, or
• normally-open construction-valve is closed when energised and open
when de-energised.
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
3/2 (3-way valves)
Three-way solenoid vales have three pipe connections and two
orifices (when one is open the other is closed and vice versa). They are
commonly used alternately to apply pressure to and exhaust pressure
from a diaphragm valve or single acting cylinder (see Figure 3). Three
modes of operation are available.
• Normally-closed construction-with the valve de-energised, the
pressure port is closed and the exhaust port is connected to the cylinder
port. With the valve energised, the pressure port is connected to the
cylinder port and the exhaust port is closed.
• Normally-open construction-when the valve is de-energised the
pressure port is connected to the cylinder port and the exhaust port is
closed. When the valve is energised, the pressure port is closed and the
cylinder port is connected to the exhaust port.
• Universal construction-this allows the valve to be connected in either
the normally-closed or normally-open position. In addition, the valve
may be connected to select one or two ports (selection) or to divert now
from one port to another (diversion).
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
4/2 and 5/2 (4-way valves)
Four-way solenoid valves are generally used to operate double-
acting cylinders. These have four or five pipe connections-one pressure,
two cylinder and one or two exhausts (Figure 4). In one valve
position, pressure is connected to one cylinder port; the other is
connected to the exhaust. In the other valve position, pressure and
exhaust are reversed at the cylinder connections.
Single-solenoid and dual-solenoid types are commonplace.
Manual reset valves
Manual reset valves must be manually latched into position and will
return to their original position only when the solenoid has been
energised or de-energised depending on construction (Figure 5). Four
modes of operation are possible:
• electrically tripped-latched open
• electrically tripped-latched closed
• no voltage release-normally-closed
• no voltage release-normally-open
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
Valve classifications
• General purpose valve-a normally-open or normally-closed valve intended
to control the flow of a fluid but not depended upon to act as a safety valve.
• Safety shut-off valve a normally-closed valve of the 'on' or 'off' type,
intended to be actuated by a safety control or emergency device to prevent
unsafe fluid delivery. It may also be used as a general purpose valve. A
multiple-port valve may be designated as a safety shut-off valve only with
respect to its normally-closed port.
Process-control valve an approved valve (FM) to control flammable
gases, but not to be relied upon as a safety shut-off valve.
Direct-acting valves
When the solenoid is energised in a direct-acting valve, the core directly
opens the orifice of a normally-closed valve or closes the orifice of a normally-
open valve (Figures 6a and 6b).
The force needed to open the valves is proportional to the orifice size
and fluid pressure. As the orifice size increases, so does the force
required. To open large orifices while keeping the solenoid size small, internal
pilots are used.
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
Pilot-operated valve
This type of solenoid valve is equipped with a pilot and
(smaller) (bleed) orifice and utilises the line pressure for operation.
When the solenoid is energised, the pilot orifice is opened and
releases pressure from the top of the valve piston or diaphragm to
the outlet of the valve.
This results in an unbalanced pressure which forces the line pressure to
lift the piston or diaphragm off the main orifice and open the valve.
When the solenoid is de-energised, the pilot orifice is closed and full
line pressure is applied to the top of the piston or diaphragm through the
bleed orifice, producing a sealing force for tight closure. There are two
common types of construction:
(i) floating diaphragm or piston which requires a minimum pressure
drop to remain in the open position (Figures 7a and 7b);
(ii) hung-type diaphragm or piston which is mechanically held open
by the solenoid core and operates from zero to the maximum pressure
rating (Figures 8a and 8b).
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
Pressure-operated valve
This is a diaphragm- or piston-operated valve equipped with a 3- or 4-way
solenoid pilot which alternatively applies a separate operating pressure to or
from the diaphragm or piston to open or close the main valve (Figures 9 and
10).
Air-operated solenoid valves
An-air operated solenoid valve has two basic functional units:
(i) an operator with a diaphragm or piston assembly which when pressurised
develops a force to operates:
(ii) a valve containing an orifice in which a disc or plug is positioned to stop
or allow flow.
Low and instrument air-pressure range operators usually have a diaphragm
for operation and for pneumatic operation the operator is generally a piston.
In dual-acting valves the operator stem is moved by the diaphragm or piston
and directly opens or closes the orifice. In internal pilot-operated valves, the
valve is equipped with a pilot and bleed orifice and utilises the line pressure for
operation. Figure 11 shows a direct-acting valve flow diagram and Figure 12 an
internal pilot-operated valve flow diagram.
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
Return-spring effect
With a two-way normally-closed valve, both the spring force and the fluid
inlet pressure act to close the valve. As a consequence, the return spring can be
made relatively weak, and in some designs eliminated entirely. The latter
would require mounting the valve so that the solenoid was vertical, return
action being by gravity plus fluid pressure.
With a two-way normally-open valve, the spring holds the valve open,
assisted by fluid pressure. The solenoid force must be sufficient to overcome
both spring pressure and inlet pressure to close the valve.
Three-way valves require an upper and a lower spring. The lower
spring presses the valve against its seal opened by inlet pressure. The upper
spring acts in a direction to force the valve open. The following are the
combination of spring strengths required:
Solenoid enclosures.
Various types of enclosures may be used for solenoid coils, ranging from
general purpose enclosures to protect from indirect splashing and dust,
through dust and watertight enclosures to full explosion-proof enclosures.
Requirements in this respect are specific to the application and selected
accordingly.
14. Solenoid Valves
Glandless solenoid valves
By arranging the solenoid armature to work in a sealed tube with the
solenoid coil enveloping it, the sealing glands can be dispensed with, so
simplifying the construction and eliminating one possible point of
leakage.
This principle has been applied extensively to smaller valves. A typical
type is shown in Figure 13.
This valve is T-shaped with two ports opposite each other, while the
third is at right angles to them. The plunger, usually of a corrosion-
resistant ferrous material, is spring-biased so that when unenergised
it closes the lower orifice while leaving the other open. When
energised. the plunger is pulled up so that the lower orifice is opened and
the upper closed. If desired, the spring can be arranged to bias the
plunger in one direction.
The plunger is provided with plastic valve discs, usually of synthetic
rubber or nylon. Because the plunger is unbalanced, the force due to the
pressure must be limited and the size of orifice, and therefore the flow
and pressure drop, is usually related to the pressure.
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
The maximum pressure is also related to the type of valve and may be
as high as 210 bar (3000 lbf/in2) with an 0.85 mm (t/32 in) orifice.
Flow depends on the allowable pressure drop and this in turn depends on
the orifice size and the fluid.
Sealing is normally 'bubble-tight' but this is to some extent
dependent on the cleanliness of the fluid. Lubrication is not essential but
if used with air the valve life is increased by air-line lubrication.
Glandless valves can be installed in any position and will withstand
appreciable shock loads. Response time is extremely short, 5 ms on AC
and 10 to 15 ms on DC and it is said that speeds of up to several hundred
cycles per minute are possible.
For hazardous atmospheres, most manufacturers supply explosion-
proof materials which are slightly heavier and bulkier than the standard
type. Although these valves were originally developed for aircraft and
missile application, there is no doubt that they have many uses in
hydraulics, both as main valves for low-power systems and as pilot
valves.
14. Solenoid Valves
Where pressures do not exceed 17.5 bar (250 lbf/in2), a 1.6 mm (1/16
in) diameter orifice is suitable and this gives a flow of 2.31 1/min (0.50
gal/min) for 3.5 bar (50 lbf/in2) pressure drop. On a 50.8 mm (tin)
diameter cylinder, this would give a piston speed of 760 mm (30 in) per
minute, while when used as a pilot valve for 2 5.4 mm (1 in) diameter
spool with 12.7 mm (2 in) movement, the operating time is about half a
second.
When acting as pilot valve, the actual flow would almost
certainly be greater than that for a 3.5 bar (50 lbf/in2) pressure drop, as
for a large part of the time the pressure drop will be nearer 14 bar (200
lbf/in2), until the resistance to piston or spool builds up.
14. Solenoid Valves
Most of the manufacturers of these valves also supply pilot-
operated valves incorporating the basic glandless valve; four-way
valves, and two- and three-way valves for larger flows, are made in this
way.
These valves may prove useful in acting as pilots to larger valves when
the `pressure release' principle is adopted. Figure 14 shows this applied
to a differential-area spool valve. Normally the larger area keeps the
spool to the right, with the solenoid valve SC closed. Opening the
solenoid valve causes the pressure to drop in the left-hand chamber and
the spring, with the excess pressure, causes the spool to move to the
left. A two-position springless valve could also be operated in the
same way with jets and solenoid valves at each end.
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
Glandless solenoid valves-spool type
The construction of a four-way spring-centred closed-centre
double-solenoid valve is shown in Figure 15. It has push solenoids
with a spool movement of 1 mm (0.040 in) either side of the centre. It
is suitable for pressures up to 140 bar (2000 lbf/in2) and has a now of 9
1/min (2 gal/min) for a pressure drop of 2 bar (30 lbf/in2) on light
hydraulic oil at 27 to 38°C (80 to 100°F). It is gasketmounted and when
used as a pilot valve is bolted on top of the main valve.
Another example of a glandless valve with a `wet' armature is
shown in Figure 16. All seals are static 0-rings.
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
Selection
A number of operating and physical parameters must be considered
when selecting a solenoid valve. The operating parameters include:
• Pressures: Maximum operating pressure differential (MOPD), i.e. the
pressure the electrical solenoid has to overcome to open the valve and allow
flow to occur. Minimum operating-pressure differential (MinOPD), i.e. the
minimum pressure drop that will exist across the valve when it is flowing. Safe
static pressure, i.e. the maximum pressure the valve can be subjected to in
normal service. Proof pressure, i.e. 5 times the safe working pressure.
• Temperatures: Normal ambient temperature, Maximum ambient
temperature, Minimum ambient temperature, Maximum fluid temperature
• Viscosity: Viscosity is greatly dependent on temperature and to know the
actual viscosity of a fluid, the real temperature of the fluid must be considered.
Oil grades-both hydraulic and fuel oils are classified relative to viscosity and
are roughly distinguished in heavy and light oils.
• Response time: This is the time lapse after energising (or de-energising) a
solenoid valve and depends on the valve size and operating mode, the
kind of electrical supply, AC or DC, fluids handled by the valve,
temperature, inlet pressure and pressure drop.
14. Solenoid Valves
Approximate values for AC valves on air service under average conditions
are:
Small direct-acting valves: 5-10 ms
Large direct-acting valves: 20-40 ms
Internal pilot-operated valves:
(a) small diaphragm-type 15-60 ms
(b) large diaphragm-type 40-120 ms
(c) small piston-type 75-100 ms
(d) large piston-type 100-1000 ms
Operation on liquid media generally has little effect. i.e.
(a) small direct-acting valves: 20-30% higher
(b) large direct-acting valves: 50-150% higher
Response time on DC valves is approximately 50-60% higher than on
AC operation.
• Valve seat tightness
Valve-seat tightness or leakage depends on the type of valve used,
sealing materials, trim and medium.
14. Solenoid Valves
Valve sizing
It is essential to size a valve properly because both undersizing and oversizing
have undesirable effects.
Undersizing may result in:
(1) Inability to pass desired flow requirements
(2) Flashing of liquids to vapours on the outlet side of the valve
(3) Lowering the outlet pressure
(4) Creating a substantial pressure loss in a piping system
Oversizing may result in:
(1) Unnecessary cost in oversized equipment
(2) Variable now through the valve or erratic control of the flow
(3) Shorter life of some valve designs through oscillating of internal parts
(4) Erratic operation of some designs such as failure to shift position due to
lack of required flow in 3- and 4-way valves
(5) Erosion of wire drawing of seats in some designs because they operate at
nearly-closed position
14. Solenoid Valves
The K„ (Cu) method of valve sizing reduces all variables to a
common denominator called flow coefficient. Most, if not all.
manufacturers provide extensive information and reference data for
estimating K„ (Cr) and accurate sizing of solenoid valves. To
summarise, the basic factors in valve sizing include:
• Maximum and minimum flows to be controlled
• Maximum and minimum pressure differentials across the valve
• Specific gravity, temperature and viscosity of fluids being controlled
Table 1 gives details of problems, possible causes and solutions in
relation to the operation of solenoid valves.
It is recommended that manufacturers' data is referred to and
followed carefully when problems occur. It is advisable that the
manufacturer is consulted in cases of difficulty.
14. Solenoid Valves
14. Solenoid Valves
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
'Swing check' valves is the preferred description for non-return valves
consisting of a hinged disc, although they are also commonly called
flap valves because of their geometric action. Their mode of working
is obvious. With flow in one direction the disc hinges upwards to
permit flow through the valve. With reverse flow the disc is held
closed. Equally, spring pressure or mass effect normally holds the disc
closed in the absence of flow. In some cases closure is also assisted by
the use of a weighted lever.
Small-size swing check valves for low-pressure services may use
an elastomeric disc with a square end clamped in position, eliminating
any need for a separate hinge. A back-up plate is added to assist closure
and also provide rigidity to the unsupported area of elastomer when
the valve is closed. Without this the disc would tend to collapse and
extrude through the port. Larger versions of flexible (elastomeric) flap
valves are made in sizes up to 1500 mm (60 in).
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
Larger swing check valves are more usually made with discs or flaps of metal
or composite materials, hinged at the top and sealing on a metal seal. The
sealing surface is inclined at a small angle to the vertical to assist opening,
provide more positive sealing under back pressure and reduce shock when
closing under high pressure. A typical valve design is shown in Figure 1. In
larger valves the disc or flap may be double hung. Flap shapes are
normally (but not necessarily) circular.
Swing check valves present relatively high resistance to flow in the
open position as well as creating turbulence, because the flap `floats' in
the fluid stream. They may also tend to chatter in systems having
frequent flow reversals. Swing check valves are normally used in horizontal
pipelines. They can also be used in sectional pipelines with upward flow. They
are not suitable for use in systems with pulsating flows. However, weight added
to the flap or disc (or spring-loading) can control the opening pressure as well
as assisting closure under back pressure.
Commonly the body shape incorporates a 'dead' volume in which fluid can be
trapped downstream of the flap once the valve is closed. If necessary, a drain
can be incorporated at this point, e.g. when it is desirable to drain a
system completely on shut-down.
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
The double-plate check valve shown in Figure 2 is particularly
suitable for pumping and general industry applications such as
water treatment, irrigation, general circuits and industrial processes.
The valve is mounted between flanges and is suited to installations
where space is limited. The swing check valve shown in Figure 3 has
only one moving part and is of the sprung type. It has a tight shut-off
and is capable of working in temperatures up to 600°C and
pressures up to 100 bar. The spring mechanism is usually made from
Iconel-X, titanium or Hastelloy.
Swing check (flap) valves are also produced in a three-piece
construction similar to that used in ball valve design (Figure 4).
The straight-through flow makes it particularly suitable for
hydrocarbon and chemical process lines. For maintenance purposes,
the valve body swings outward to allow access to the check and
seats.
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
15. Swing Check (Flap) Valves
Materials
Body materials used for swing check valves include cast iron,
bronze, cast steel, forged steel, stainless steel, high-duty alloys and
also plastics. Valve discs may be in similar materials or composites.
Applications
Main application areas for swing check valves are the water
industry, including pumping and water treatment, irrigation, and the
petrochemical industry including hydrocarbons and industrial
processes. Other applications can be found in air conditioning and
general industry.
16. Penstocks
A penstock is a single-faced valve consisting of an open frame and a
door. This form of valve is normally located in tanks or channels as a
means of controlling flow into a pipe. Many types are available to suit
particular requirements and operating conditions. The main ones are:
(i) Penstocks for operating against pressure, i.e. pressure forcing the
door onto the frame.
(ii) Penstocks for operating against off-seating pressure, i.e. pressure
forcing the door away from the frame.
(iii) Penstocks designed to accommodate both seating and off-seating
pressures.
Seating pressure can be accommodated by the use of side wedges
only. Off-seating pressure requires the use of bottom wedges or top and
bottom wedges (see Figure 1). Penstocks subject to sealing pressure
normally seal tighter than penstocks for off-sealing pressure duties.
Both types can be made virtually drop-tight with correct installation,
distortion of the gate frame at the time of installation being the
determining factor as far as leakage is concerned.
16. Penstocks
16. Penstocks
Penstock frames maybe circular or rectangular. In the latter case
a preferred proportion of width to depth is 2:3 for vertical form, and 4:3
for horizontal form. Frames and gates are commonly made of cast iron,
although plastic materials (usually reinforced steel) are also used for
gates operating in aluminium, stainless steel or epoxy-coated frames
for corrosive applications. Frames may be for channel or wall-
mounted application (Figure 3). Sealing faces in suitable materials
are embedded into both the frame and door surfaces.
Handwheel operation of the gate is normal, using a rising stem
supported by a suitable headstock or bracket. The advantage of a rising
stem is that the screw thread at the bottom of the stem is not usually
immersed and is readily accessible for lubrication. A non-rising stem
eliminates the need for a headstock and merely rotates through a nut in
the penstock door (see Figure 2). The threaded portion at the bottom is
then usually immersed in the product being handled. Different systems
for raising and lowering the gate may be employed on modulating
penstocks used for flow-control purposes (Figures 4 and 5).
16. Penstocks
16. Penstocks
16. Penstocks
16. Penstocks
16. Penstocks
Discharge through penstocks
A penstock when opened represents a partial obstruction in an
open channel over which liquid accelerates with a free liquid
surface. Its performance is thus essentially similar to that of a weir
where flow rate Q is proportional to width and velocity head.
Working formulae are:
17. Miscellaneous Valves
Where processes or storage applications require continuous safety,
the three-way changeover valve allows the user to cross over from one
relief-valve system to another. The design permits two valves on a
single riser. This arrangement protects the system with one active valve
while the other valve is either in reserve or being serviced. Construction
details are shown in Figure 1.
The valve works with many general and specialised applications
and can incorporate an interlock system that allows either valve to be
discharged into a single header. One valve mounts on the riser, the other
on the outlets of the relief valves. The valves are operated
simultaneously through a simple linkage. This type of valve can also
be adapted for remote actuation, still maintaining the single movement
rotary change-over action. Typical areas where the valve is used
include chemical plants, fertilizer plants, offshore platforms,
refineries, pulp and paper mills, gas distribution systems, toxic
service, environmental protection, chlorine storage tanks, refrigeration,
dual filtration and process systems.
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
Pneumatic piston controlled on-off valve
Typically, this type of valve is best suited for controlling the flow of
fluids, gases, steam and other substances apart from explosive
substances (Figure 2).
The valve is equipped with a position indicator. Generally the material
of construction is either AISI 316, bronze or brass. Although the valve
can be fitted in almost any position, it must be fitted so that the direction
of flow is opposite to the plunger-closing position, otherwise water
hammer can result.
Tunnel diverter valve
This valve is designed for use in pressure or vacuum systems to divert
or converge pellets: granules, fine powders or abrasive materials. Two
types of seals are used: O-ring seals for applications conveying
pellets and granular materials, and air-assisted seals for conveying
powdered or abrasive materials where three air inlets introduce
compressed air into the diverter-valve housing.
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
An unusual design of check valve is shown in Figure 3. This features a
lipped elastomeric membrane as the working element, offering
virtually unrestricted flow in the open position with a capability of
passing suspended solids up to the full bore diameter. The membrane
itself is held open to a full circular form by the flow, the circumference
of the membrane in this condition being D. Loss of head is thus
minimal (e.g. directly comparable with that of a swing check valve).
With reverse flow, the membrane assumes a closed position with the
lips in mating contact (Figure 4), i.e. the natural `unloaded' form of the
membrane. Closure is further assisted and maintained by the reverse flow
impinging on the sides of the now wedge-shaped membrane. The length
of seal in this case is Ti.D/2, or substantially half that of a conventional
check valve (i.e. the potential leakage path is reduced by half).
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
The membrane itself is not subject to elastic deformation, merely
flexure, and thus has a long life, particularly if the fluid does not contain
abrasive solids in suspension. When servicing is required, replacement of
the membrane is a simple operation. No other servicing is necessary. The
membrane elastomer is selected according to the product to be handled.
Because of the elastic nature of the closure, this type of check valve
cannot water hammer and is also noiseless in that it has no hinge or
spring which can be excited into vibration in either the open or closed
position. Currently this valve is made in threaded form for water pipes up
to 50 mm (2 in) diameter and flanged for water pipes from 50 to 400 mm
(2 to 16 in) diameter. Valve sizes up to 125 mm (5 in) have a single
passage. Larger valves have several passages, each with its individual
membrane (Figure 5). This solution of dividing the total flow into
partial flows with smaller flow rates which never open or close
strictly eliminates water hammer in these larger valve sizes with
higher flow rates.
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
Eccentric valves
The description `eccentric valve' is applied to plug valves having
an eccentric motion against a resilient facing, i.e. as the eccentric plug
rotates 90° from open to closed, it moves into a raised eccentric seat. The
complete action can be followed from Figure 6.
In the open position, the segmented plug is out of the flow path. Flow
is straight-through, flow capacity is high. As the plug closes, it moves
towards the seat without scraping the seat or body walls so there is no
plug binding or wear. Flow is still straight-through.
In the closed position, the plug makes contact with the seat. When
furnished with a resilient facing, the plug is pressed firmly into the seat
for dead-tight shut-off. The eccentric plug and seat provide lasting
shut-off because the plug continues to be pressed against the seat until
firm contact is made.
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
Throttling characteristics of a valve of this type are generally
excellent (Figure 7). and shut-off in the closed position is positive with
air and gases as well as liquids.
The valve shown in Figures 8 and 9 has been specifically intended for
applications such as tanker truck loading, portable tanks,
intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) bulk transfer stations, and
agricultural and aviation duties.
The unit is designed to avoid accidental spills and cannot be
disconnected in the `open' position. A handle prevents this and poppets
automatically stop the flow from both directions when the unit is
disconnected. Maximum working pressure is 150 lb/int. The valve
must not be opened or closed when the pressure is in excess of 60
lb/inz.
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
Polymer valves
Polymer valves are used to drain feed, changeover, sample, inject,
distribute and control polyester (including PET), nylon, PVC, PP,
PU, HDPE, LDPE and related polymers. The different types of valves
used in the polymer processes include:
• Feeding valves-disc valves are better suited than ram valves for
feeding low viscosity feedstocks into reactors (Figure 10). Typical
feeding valves are used to regulate the flow of polyester into
esterification and polymerization reactors. For vacuum service, bellows
are generally used. These should be of the external type due to the
possibility of failure in a crystallising environment.
• Discharge valves-ram and disc-type bottom outlet valves are used to
drain reactors or control access to the transfer lines between reactors and
crystallisers (Figure 11).
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
• Injection and stripping (deodourising) valve-in many processes, unwanted
impurities or remnants, such as unpolymerized monomers in PVC and
polyurethanes or solvents in paints and coating suspensions, are stripped from
the batch at the end of the process by the injection of saturated steam.
The ram tip of the valve is adapted to each vessel as well as the
required flow conditions to optimise the spray pattern and prevent product
reflux during the operating cycle and in the closed position.
Rather than emptying the reactor when an exothermic reaction goes out
of control, the injection and stripping valve (Figure 12) injects a stopper.
Another injection valve injects protective colloids. This type of valve is
also used to inject steam to heat a reactor.
• Spray rinse valves-typically used to rinse polymer reactors, especially in
the production of PVC where the dome and bottom pad are the parts most in
need of cleaning. Valves can be used with water or steam at up to 40 bar.
• Sampling valves-for drain and sampling and flush or purge.
• Polymer additives injection valve-these valves allow small amounts of
additives and catalysts such as titanium dioxide to be injected into the line and
distributed evenly through the polymer (Figure 13). Different types are
available.
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
17. Miscellaneous Valves
• Multiport diverter valves-these eliminate multiple in-line valves with
associated distributor `T' pieces and piping. Main lines can be divided up
to six lines with the valves having up to seven inlets and outlets.
• Filter switching valves-usually two valves are involved for switching
duplex filters in high-viscosity polymer plants. The inlet valve diverts the
flow to one of the duplex filters and the outlet valve guides the flow back
to the main line. Piston diverter valves and rotating disc valves are used
for this process. Both types of valves can also incorporate particular
features and modes of operation.
• In-line valves-these are used to control and shut off the flow of
polymer through the piping system. Ball valves and globe valves are not
suitable for this duty. Y-globe valves are used in both manual on/off and
automatic control versions with polyester. As an alternative, gate valves
are used in low pressure and vacuum applications.
• Dye head valves-these valves combine a bottom outlet piston or an
end of line Y-globe valve with a stranding dye head, the one used in
polyester and nylon polymerization plants.